Why it seems time and the speed of light varies in different dimensions resulting in to different phenomenon. Part II

In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles (for example, a proton, neutron, or meson), or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other particles (for example, an electron, photon, or muon). Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact.

Experiments show that light could behave like a stream of particles (called photons) as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led to the concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale particles behave like both particles and waves.

Another concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, cannot be measured exactly. The wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to more massive particles as well.

Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field theory.

Compositions of subatomic particles.

Subatomic particles are either "elementary", i.e. not made of multiple other particles, or "composite" and made of more than one elementary particle bound together.

The elementary particles of the Standard Model are:

1)Six "flavors" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top;

2)Six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino;

3)Twelve gauge bosons (force carriers): the photon of electromagnetism, the three W and Z bosons of the weak force, and the eight gluons of the strong force;

Hadrons

 Nearly all composite particles contain multiple quarks (and/or antiquarks) bound together by gluons (with a few exceptions with no quarks, such as positronium and meconium). Those containing few (≤ 5) quarks (including antiquarks) are called hadrons. Due to a property known as color confinement, quarks are never found singly but always occur in hadrons containing multiple quarks.

 The hadrons are divided by number of quarks (including antiquarks) into the baryons containing an odd number of quarks (almost always 3), of which the proton and neutron (the two nucleons) are by far the best known; and the mesons containing an even number of quarks (almost always 2, one quark and one antiquark), of which the pions and kaons are the best known.

Except for the proton and neutron, all other hadrons are unstable and decay into other particles in microseconds or less. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. These commonly bind together into an atomic nucleus, e.g. a helium-4 nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons. Most hadrons do not live long enough to bind into nucleus-like composites; those that do (other than the proton and neutron) form exotic nuclei.

Any subatomic particle, like any particle in the three-dimensional space that obeys the laws of quantum mechanics, can be either a boson (with integer spin) or a fermion (with odd half-integer spin).

In the Standard Model, all the elementary fermions have spin 1/2, and are divided into the quarks which carry color charge and therefore feel the strong interaction, and the leptons which do not. The elementary bosons comprise the gauge bosons (photon, W and Z, gluons) with spin 1, while the Higgs boson is the only elementary particle with spin zero.  

Due to the laws for spin of composite particles, the baryons (3 quarks) have spin either 1/2 or 3/2, and are therefore fermions;

The mesons (2 quarks) have integer spin of either 0 or 1, and are therefore bosons.

Subatomic Particle Decay

 Most subatomic particles are not stable outside their dimensions. All leptons, as well as baryons decay by either the strong force or weak force (except for the proton). Protons are not known to decay, although whether they are "truly" stable is unknown, as some very important Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) actually require it. The μ and τ muons, as well as their antiparticles, decay by the weak force. Neutrinos (and antineutrinos) do not decay, but a related phenomenon of neutrino oscillations is thought to exist even in vacuums. The electron and its antiparticle, the positron, are theoretically stable due to charge conservation unless a lighter particle having a magnitude of electric charge ≤ e exists (which is unlikely). Its charge is not shown yet.

All observable subatomic particles have their electric charge an integer which is a multiple of the elementary charge. The Standard Model's quarks have "non-integer" electric charges, namely, multiple of 1⁄3 e, but quarks (and other combinations with non-integer electric charge) cannot be isolated due to color confinement. For baryons, mesons, and their antiparticles the constituent quarks' charges sum up to an integer multiple of e.

The theory of Relativity

According to the theory of relativity, time dilation occurs because time is not an absolute quantity, but rather depends on the relative motion of two observers. Specifically, when two observers are in relative motion to each other, they will each experience time passing at a different rate.

This effect is caused by the fact that the speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference, meaning that the laws of physics must be consistent for all observers moving at a constant velocity.

 This leads to the phenomenon of time dilation, where time appears to "slow down" for an observer in motion relative to another observer who is at rest.

The equation that describes time dilation is given by:

Δt' = Δt / √(1 - v^2/c^2)

where Δt is the time interval measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the event being measured, Δt' is the time interval measured by an observer who is in motion relative to the event, v is the relative velocity between the two observers, and c is the speed of light.

This equation shows that as the relative velocity between two observers approaches the speed of light, time dilation becomes more significant, and the time interval measured by the moving observer becomes increasingly smaller compared to the time interval measured by the stationary observer. This effect has been observed in experiments involving high-speed particles and is a key prediction of the theory of relativity.

According to the theory of relativity, an object traveling at the speed of light would experience infinite time dilation, meaning that time appears to come to a complete stop for the object. Therefore, it is not meaningful to ask what the length of the object would be at a stationary time, because the concept of "stationary time" does not apply to an object traveling at the speed of light.

However, we can still calculate the length contraction that would occur for an object traveling at a speed very close to the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, the length of an object as measured by an observer in motion relative to the object is given by:

L' = L / √(1 - v^2/c^2)

where L is the length of the object as measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the object, L' is the length of the object as measured by an observer who is in motion relative to the object, v is the relative velocity between the two observers, and c is the speed of light.

If we assume that the object has a rest length of 1 meter and is traveling at a speed very close to the speed of light (let's say v = 0.999c), we can calculate the length of the object as measured by an observer in motion relative to the object:

L' = 1 m / √(1 - (0.999c)^2/c^2) = 22.4 cm

This means that the length of the object would appear to be contracted to 22.4 centimeters when measured by an observer in motion relative to the object.

According to the theory of relativity, a photon traveling at the speed of light experiences time dilation, which means that time appears to come to a complete stop for the photon. From the perspective of a photon, there is no time between its emission and absorption, because it experiences the entire journey at once.

 Therefore, it is not meaningful to talk about the "time" of a photon.

As for the size of a photon, it is not possible to talk about the size of a photon in the same way that we talk about the size of a macroscopic object. Photons are elementary particles and are believed to be point-like, meaning that they do not have a physical size or extent. However, photons do have a wavelength and a frequency, which are related to their energy and momentum. The wavelength and frequency of a photon are related by the equation:

λ = c / ν

where λ is the wavelength of the photon, ν is its frequency, and c is the speed of light. The energy of a photon is related to its frequency by the equation:

E = hν

where E is the energy of the photon and h is Planck's constant.

The concept of time moving at 0 seconds is not physically meaningful, so it is difficult to describe what would happen to an object in such a scenario. However, if we assume that time is moving extremely slowly, then we can use the equations of time dilation and length contraction from special relativity to describe the behavior of objects.

Assuming that an object is moving at a speed close to the speed of light, its length would contract according to the following equation:

L = L_0 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2)

where L is the contracted length, L_0 is the object's rest length (i.e., the length it would have if it were at rest), v is its velocity, and c is the speed of light.

If we assume that time is moving very slowly or has stopped, then v would be close to or equal to c, and the denominator of the equation would approach 0. This would cause the contracted length to become infinitely small or collapse to a singularity.

Time moving at speeds of 0 or as a fraction of the speed of light or c

The concept of time becoming zero or negative is quite difficult to imagine in our usual three dimensions,  as time seems always positive and cannot be less than zero. However, if we assume that time is moving extremely slowly, then we can use the equations of time dilation and length contraction from special relativity to describe the behavior of objects.

If an object is moving at the speed of light, then its length would contract to zero according to the following equation:

L = L_0 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2)

where L is the contracted length, L_0 is the object's rest length (i.e., the length it would have if it were at rest), v is its velocity, and c is the speed of light.

If we assume that the velocity of the object is exactly equal to c, then the denominator of the equation would be zero, which would cause the contracted length to become infinitely small or collapse to a singularity. 

A singularity isn’t a place in space that we know much about, a strange and perhaps a place of perfect reflection or perfect darkness. A place where different physics seems to apply and strange things seem to happen, a place where photons form chains that we can touch. Or patterns of photons that nothing we know of can break.

 Time flows in the orders of fractions of the speed of light and the greater the fraction of the speed of light ,the slower the speed at which energy flows, creating physical particles with different masses in proportion to the fractions of the speed of light .The speed of light is also in the orders of fractions of the speeds of light in our three usual dimensions .

How different fractions of the speed of light in different dimensions or “1/c” determines the energy ,masses, time and behavior of different particles in different dimensions of time.

Below are mathematical calculations involving the flow of energy at speeds that are fractions of speeds of light and the different particles they form and perhaps we can find some similarities to see how many exact dimensions actually exist within the atom.

Formation of matter by varying the speeds of light below the value of C.

The Nucleus

The formation of a nucleus involves the binding of protons and neutrons through the strong nuclear force. The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of it's constituent particles, and this mass deficit is known as the mass defect. 

The mass defect is related to the binding energy of the nucleus through Einstein's famous equation, E = mc^2.

To calculate the speed of light required to form a nucleus of a particular mass in one second, we would need to know the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the binding energy per nucleon. The binding energy per nucleon varies for different nuclei, so the required speed of light would also vary.

As an example, let's consider the formation of a helium-4 nucleus, which contains two protons and two neutrons. The mass of a helium-4 nucleus is about 4.0026 atomic mass units (amu), while the combined mass of two protons and two neutrons is about 4.0319 amu. The mass defect for helium-4 is therefore 0.0293 amu. Using E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required to create this mass, which is:

E = (0.0293 amu) * (1.66 x 10^-27 kg/amu) * (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 2.61 x 10^-11 joules

To form this nucleus in one second, the speed of light would need to be slowed down such that:

2.61 x 10^-11 joules = (3.00 x 10^8 m/s)^2 * m m = 9.15 x 10^-28 kg

This corresponds to a speed of:

v = m / t = 9.15 x 10^-28 kg / 1 s = 9.15 x 10^-28 m/s

Therefore, to form a helium-4 nucleus in one second, the speed of light would need to be slowed down to 9.15 x 10^-28 m/s.

The proton

To form a proton with a mass of approximately 1.6726219 × 10^-27 kilograms in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to:

c = √[(E/m)^2 - 1]

where E is the energy required to create the mass of the proton and m is the rest mass of the proton.

Using the equation E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required:

E = (1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg) x (299792458 m/s)^2

E = 1.50327655 x 10^-10 joules

Plugging this into the first equation, we get:

c = √[(1.50327655 x 10^-10 J)/(1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg)]^2 – 1

c = 299792458.00000005 m/s

So, the speed of light would only need to slow down by an incredibly small amount of 0.000000016 meters per second to create a proton in one second.

The Neutron

To form a neutron with a mass of approximately 1.6749275 × 10^-27 kilograms in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to:

c = √[(E/m)^2 - 1]

where E is the energy required to create the mass of the neutron and m is the rest mass of the neutron.

Using the equation E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required:

E = (1.6749275 × 10^-27 kg) x (299792458 m/s)^2

E = 1.50534995 x 10^-10 joules

Plugging this into the first equation, we get:

c = √[(1.50534995 x 10^-10 J)/(1.6749275 × 10^-27 kg)]^2 - 1

c = 299792458.00000005 m/s

So, similar to the case of forming a proton, the speed of light would only need to slow down by an incredibly small amount of 0.000000016 meters per second to create a neutron in one second.

An Electron

As we discussed earlier, the formation of a mass requires a conversion of energy to mass, as described by the equation E=mc^2. So to form a mass of an electron in one second, we would need to know how much mass we want to form and then calculate the amount of energy required.

The mass of an electron is approximately 9.11 x 10^-31 kilograms. Using the equation E=mc^2, we can calculate the amount of energy required to form this mass:

E = (9.11 x 10^-31 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 E = 8.19 x 10^-14 joules

Now,  we need to determine how slow the speed of light would have to move to form this amount of energy in one second. We can use the equation:

E = Pt

where P is the power and t is the time. Solving for P, we get:

P = E / t P = (8.19 x 10^-14 J) / (1 s) P = 8.19 x 10^-14 watts

Next, we can use the equation for the power of a photon, which is given by:

P = hf / t

where h is Planck's constant, f is the frequency of the photon, and t is the time. Solving for f, we get:

f = P / (h x t) f = (8.19 x 10^-14 W) / (6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 1 s) f = 1.23 x 10^19 Hz

Finally, we can use the equation for the energy of a photon, which is given by:

E = hf

where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency of the photon. Solving for c, we get:

c = E / hf c = (8.19 x 10^-14 J) / (6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 1.23 x 10^19 Hz) c = 5.27 x 10^6 m/s

So to form a mass of an electron in one second, the speed of light would have to slow down to approximately 5.27 million meters per second.

The Muon,Tau ,Neutrino

Muon: To form a mass of one muon (approximately 1.88 x 10^-28 kg) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999964 c (where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, approximately 299,792,458 meters per second).

Tau: To form a mass of one tau (approximately 3.17 x 10^-27 kg) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999852 c.

Neutrino (electron, muon, or tau): Neutrinos have very small masses, ranging from about 0.00001 to 0.00000001 times the mass of an electron. To form a mass of one neutrino (assuming an average mass of 0.00000001 times the mass of an electron) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999999999999996 c (approximately 299,792,457.999999963 meters per second). It's worth noting that neutrinos are typically not thought to be formed by slowing down the speed of light, but rather through other processes such as nuclear reactions.

The Gluon ,Z-boson,W-boson

The formation of a massive particle from energy depends on the amount of energy involved and the rest mass of the resulting particle. The relationship between energy and mass is given by the famous equation E=mc^2, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

To determine how slow the speed of light should move to form a particular particle in one second, we need to rearrange the equation to solve for c.

c = sqrt(E/m)

where E is the energy required to create the particle, and m is the rest mass of the particle.

For the gluon, z boson, and W boson, they are all elementary particles and have no rest mass. Therefore, their creation requires only the energy required to create them, which can be obtained from their mass-energy equivalence through the equation E=mc^2.

For example, the rest mass of the Z boson is about 91 GeV/c^2, so the energy required to create one Z boson is about:

E = (91 GeV/c^2) * c^2 = 8.187 x 10^-11 J

To form a Z boson in one second, we can plug in the values of E and m into the equation above and solve for c:

c = sqrt(E/m) = sqrt(8.187 x 10^-11 J / 91 GeV/c^2) = 0.9983c

So the speed of light would have to slow down to about 99.83% of its normal value to create a Z boson in one second.

For other particles, the values of E and m will be different, and therefore the required value of c will be different as well.

Formation of matter by variation of time ,at constant universal speeds of light in different dimensions.

The Electron

The speed of light is a fundamental constant of nature, and it does not change. Its value is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second (m/s). The equation E=mc² tells us that the mass of an object is proportional to its energy, and that the conversion factor between energy and mass is the speed of light squared.

If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of an electron, we can use the rest mass of an electron, which is approximately 9.1094 x 10^-31 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (9.1094 x 10^-31 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.1871 x 10^-14 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of an electron. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (8.1871 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 8.1871 x 10^-14 s

or approximately 0.82 picoseconds to create the mass of an electron. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The Muon

If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of a muon, we can use the rest mass of a muon, which is approximately 1.8835 x 10^-28 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (1.8835 x 10^-28 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.6925 x 10^-11 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of a muon. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.6925 x 10^-11 J) / (1 W) = 1.6925 x 10^-11 s

or approximately 16.9 nanoseconds to create the mass of a muon. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The Tau

If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of a tau, we can use the rest mass of a tau, which is approximately 3.1675 x 10^-27 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (3.1675 x 10^-27 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 2.8467 x 10^-10 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of a tau. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (2.8467 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 2.8467 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 284.67 picoseconds to create the mass of a tau. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The Neutrino

The rest mass of a neutrino is very small, and its value is not precisely known. However, it is known to be less than 2 eV/c², where eV is electron volts, a unit of energy, and c is the speed of light. Using the maximum value of the rest mass of a neutrino, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 3.58 x 10^-10 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the maximum rest mass of a neutrino. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (3.58 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 3.58 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 358 picoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a neutrino. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Muon Neutrino

Similar to the calculation for the neutrino, we can use the maximum rest mass of a muon neutrino, which is approximately 0.2 eV/c². Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (0.2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.79 x 10^-11 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.79 x 10^-11 J) / (1 W) = 1.79 x 10^-11 s

or approximately 17.9 picoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a muon neutrino. Again, note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The tau Neutrino

The maximum rest mass of a tau neutrino is not precisely known, but it is estimated to be less than 18.2 eV/c². Using this maximum value, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (18.2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.63 x 10^-8 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.63 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 1.63 x 10^-8 s

or approximately 16.3 nanoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a tau neutrino. As with the previous calculations, note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The down quark

The mass of a down quark is approximately 4.7 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a down quark:

E = (4.7 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 4.22 x 10^-10 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (4.22 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 4.22 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 422 picoseconds to create a down quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The strange quark

The mass of a strange quark is approximately 95 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a strange quark:

E = (95 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.52 x 10^-9 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (8.52 x 10^-9 J) / (1 W) = 8.52 x 10^-9 s

or approximately 8.52 nanoseconds to create a strange quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Bottom quark

The mass of a bottom quark is approximately 4.18 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a bottom quark:

E = (4.18 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 3.76 x 10^-8 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (3.76 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 3.76 x 10^-8 s

or approximately 37.6 nanoseconds to create a bottom quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The up quark 

The mass of an up quark is approximately 2.2 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create an up quark:

E = (2.2 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.98 x 10^-10 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.98 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 1.98 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 0.198 nanoseconds to create an up quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The charm quark

The mass of a charm quark is approximately 1.28 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a charm quark:

E = (1.28 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.15 x 10^-8 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.15 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 1.15 x 10^-8 s

or approximately 11.5 nanoseconds to create a charm quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Top quark

The mass of a top quark is approximately 173 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a top quark:

E = (173 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.55 x 10^-6 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.55 x 10^-6 J) / (1 W) = 1.55 x 10^-6 s

or approximately 1.55 microseconds to create a top quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The gluon

Gluons are massless particles, which means that they do not have a rest mass. Therefore, it is not possible to create a mass of a gluon by slowing down the speed of light or by any other means.

The mass-energy equivalence principle, expressed by the famous equation E=mc², applies only to particles that have a rest mass. Since gluons do not have a rest mass, they cannot be created from energy alone. Instead, gluons are produced as a result of the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together inside protons and neutrons.

  The Z boson

The mass of a Z boson is approximately 91 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a Z boson:

E = (91 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.16 x 10^-14 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (8.16 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 8.16 x 10^-14 s

or approximately 0.816 femtoseconds to create a Z boson. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The W- Boson

The mass of a W boson is approximately 80.4 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a W boson:

E = (80.4 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 7.24 x 10^-14 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (7.24 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 7.24 x 10^-14 s

or approximately 0.724 femtoseconds to create a W boson. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Photon

Photons are massless particles, so they cannot be created by slowing down the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, photons always travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second.

However, photons can be converted into particles with mass, such as an electron-positron pair, through various processes such as pair production. In this process, a high-energy photon can interact with the electric field of a nucleus or an atomic electron and create a pair of particles with mass. The minimum energy required for this process is twice the rest mass energy of an electron, which is approximately 1.02 MeV (mega-electron volts).

To calculate the time required to create an electron-positron pair from a photon, we can use the equation:

t = E / P

Where E is the energy required to create the pair (i.e., 2 x 0.511 MeV = 1.022 MeV) and P is the power of the energy source. For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.022 MeV) / (1 J/s) = 1.62 x 10^-15 s

or approximately 1.62 femtoseconds. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as the energy of the photon is already taken into account.

In summary we have discussed what time is, in the two part series. What happens when we exceed the speed of light and as a result we begin travelling backward in time and we gave an observed example of all anti-particles as travelling backwards in time due to the fact that they are moving faster than the speed of light. 

We have also shown that time is a fundamental part of the universe due to the fact that time is equivalent to the rate of flow of information and the basic form of information is energy, that since energy can neither be created nor destroyed ,as a result time can’t be created or destroyed. 

The fact that time is equivalent to the rate of flow of information is also clearly seen in the importance the speed of light plays in our universe and since our minds are only able to get information at the speed of light, that places limitations on our understanding of quantum mechanics. Which contains dimensions where the speed of light flows at rates which are fractions of speed of light and time has extremely small values. 

We have proved that photons aren’t formed by annihilation but by combination of two particles, an electron and a positron. 

We have examined if we slowed the speed of light, what happens to mass of different particles. Light travels slower in different dimensions, it has even been achieved by scientists in our three dimensions. It's much difficult to create matter that way .

However when we examined the formation and stability of matter by slowing down time, we observed it's more likely that all particles are classified into groups of dimensions where time is the same and perhaps affects the rate of flow of energy and thus keeps them stable in those dimensions .

This implies that the rate of flow of time differs in different dimensions ,with the slowest rate known as Planck’s time 5.391247x10^-44 seconds .Particles that are stable in their dimensions where time has a certain value in relation to the speed of light become unstable when they move to other dimensions.

The rest I will leave to the reader to think about and perhaps add more or correct any errors.

scientists speed up and slow down time.

why time and the speed of light varies in different dimensions resulting in to different phenomenon. part 1

              

 

Brief description and understanding of time as it applies to different situations.

Time is a fundamental requirement for the very existence of the universe irrespective of the presence of a conscious observer or not.This is because time is simply the rate of change of patterns ,which can also be defined in another way that time is the rate of flow of information .All information and the very basic information which we could think of is energy , if there was any failure of  flow of information in the universe then it would cease to exist or get frozen at a particular moment,so if time didnt exist or ceased to exist, the universe would cease to exist .

Since time is related to the 

rate of flow of all information in the universe including energy and from the laws of thermodynamics "energy can neither be created nor destroyed we could say that ,"Time can never be created nor destroyed"But just as the flow of energy can vary depending on the different parts or nature of space, it finds its self. So time  varies according to the nature of space in which it finds itself in.

Time is so fundamental that it is responsible in a hidden way for the formation of the very matter and perhaps forces, this implies that "if energy flowed at a certain rate or at time "T" it would either become matter or not .

Thus        Time = rate of flow of energy in the universe , Time = rate of flow of information =rate of flow of energy= speed of light and varies depending on the nature of space it is measured in and who is measuring it.

 Time also has a relationship to the speed of light ,but light is also a flow of information for the conscious entities and therefore, that is why the speed of light and time are important in relativity.

 

In physics, time is considered to be a fundamental quantity that is not easily defined but is understood through its effects on matter and energy. In classical physics, time is viewed as a universal constant that progresses uniformly and independently of other physical quantities, such as mass and energy. However, in modern physics, time is recognized as being relative to an observer's position and motion in space. 

The theory of relativity, developed by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century, fundamentally changed our understanding of time,but also fixed our minds strictly to an observer being present. According to this theory, time is not an absolute quantity but is instead a dimension that is intertwined with space to form spacetime. This means that the passage of time can vary depending on an observer's motion and location in space.This statement that the passage of time can vary depending on the observers motion and location in space is quit 

important due to the fact that space is made up of multiple dimensions and not just the three dimensions that we are aware off. But if we have to accomodate quantum mechanics then other dimensions beyond our daily perception emerge, as we discover that there is more than what meets the eye.

In addition, quantum mechanics, which is another branch of modern physics, also suggests that time can be a more complex and subtle concept. In some interpretations of quantum mechanics, time is viewed as an emergent property that arises from the interactions of quantum systems. 

 It is said that nothing we are able to perceive is able to travel faster than light , The fundamental reason is that 'the speed of light' is actually 'the speed of information propagation', the rate at which information about any event in spacetime propagates away from it and towards the future.

Traveling faster than information would cause inconsistencies in the universe's history and the universe is built so that it does not allow inconsistencies.But it isn't so as there are alot of observations that have been observed that support faster than light motion that  we shall look at later on. It just happens that our interpretation of information is based on light and we cant 

make sense of any information traveling at  speeds faster than light.

But that is best described  as we  simply can't perceive any information traveling faster than the speed of light ,which is a limitation on our part and not that of the universe.

When we compute anything traveling faster than light we find that it suddenly begins traveling backwards in time.

It's understandable that such a scenario can't be comprehended by a human mind but not by the universe. Assuming we could perceive anything, we would perceive 'the history film' in reverse motion. People would 'awake from death', get younger and end as a fertilized egg in their mother's uterus. Targets would be shot before any trigger was pulled.

 since photons would move away from our eyes towards their source, sensory information would escape from our brains into the environment, instead of learning we would know less and less,we would only know memories, which we would gradually experience again and which would then simply disappear.

One wouldn't want to travel faster than light.

How ever we can now look at observations and effects in our universe that travel faster than light. A good example of travelling faster than light is the formation of all anti-particles , all anti-particles are mirror images of their matter particles which has been described as traveling faster than light and thus backward in time. So how does the universe achieve that under our noses?

In 1949 Richard Feynman devised a theory of antimatter.

The following is a description of a spacetime diagram for pair production and annihilation which appears to the right. 

An electron is travelling along from the lower right, interacts with some light energy and starts travelling backwards in time. 

An electron travelling backwards in time is called a positron. Then an electron travelling backwards in time interacts with some other light energy and starts travelling forwards in time again. Note that throughout, there is only one electron.

Nambu commented on Feynman's theory in 1950: "The time itself loses sense as the indicator of the development of phenomena; there are particles which flow down as well as up the stream of time; the eventual creation and annihilation of pairs that may occur now and then is no creation or annihilation, but only a change of direction of moving particles, from past to future, or from future to past." (Progress in Theoretical Physics 5, (1950) 82).

Dimensions and the interaction with different values of time and speeds of light in space .

In physics, a dimension is a measure of the size or extent of an object or a system, and it refers to the number of coordinates needed to specify the location of a point in that object or system.

In the space we live in, there are three dimensions: length, width, and height, which are also known as the X, Y, and Z axis, respectively. These dimensions are often referred to as the 3-dimensional space or 3D space.

It is important to note that in some areas of physics, particularly in theoretical physics, there are theories and models that propose the existence of additional dimensions beyond the three we experience in everyday life. These additional dimensions are often referred to as "extra dimensions," and there are several different theories about their nature and properties.

The behavior of objects and systems in different dimensions is governed by the laws of physics, just as they are in our three-dimensional world. However, the specific characteristics of objects and systems in higher dimensions can be very different from what we experience in our everyday lives.

For example, in a two-dimensional world, objects can only move along the X and Y axis, and they would not be able to move in the Z direction or experience depth. Similarly, in a four-dimensional world, objects could move along four axes, including time, which would allow them to experience time as a physical dimension in addition to the three spatial dimensions.

Mathematics plays a crucial role in understanding and describing the properties of objects and systems in different dimensions. 

Many mathematical models have been developed to describe the behavior of objects and systems in different numbers of dimensions, including vector spaces, tensors, and differential geometry. 

the concept of time is closely related to the speed of light and the theory of relativity. According to the theory of relativity, the speed of light is a fundamental constant that is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion.

In certain extreme conditions, such as near a black hole or in the early moments after the Big Bang, the effects of gravity and the high energy densities can lead to distortions in space and time, which can lead to time dilation and other effects.

One example of this, is gravitational time dilation, which occurs when an object is in a strong gravitational field. According to the theory of relativity, time passes more slowly in a strong gravitational field, and near a black hole, time can become so distorted that it appears to slow down or even stop for an observer far away.

Another example is the concept of cosmic inflation, which proposes that the universe underwent a period of rapid expansion in the first moments after the Big Bang. During this period, the universe expanded faster than the speed of light, and the concept of time as we know it, may not have existed in the same way.

There is no mathematical formula to describe a condition where time is equal to the speed of light, as this would violate the fundamental principles of relativity and causality. However, mathematical models and equations have been developed to describe the behavior of objects and systems in extreme conditions, such as those near a black hole or during cosmic inflation. These models and equations are based on the principles of relativity and other fundamental laws of physics, and they provide a framework for understanding the behavior of the universe in different conditions.

However if we looked at time as the speed of information transfer ,which information is  indestructable as it is energy perhaps a way to address the above exists.

According to the theory of relativity, time dilation occurs in regions of space with different gravitational potentials or with different relative velocities. This means that time can appear to move slower in regions with stronger gravitational fields or at higher speeds relative to an observer.

In an atom, electrons orbit around the nucleus, which creates a small but measurable gravitational field. The speed of the electrons is also significant, as they travel at speeds close to the speed of light. 

As a result, time dilation occurs in the atom, and time appears to move slower for the electrons than it does for an observer outside the atom.

In the nucleus of an atom, there are protons and neutrons, which are made up of smaller particles called quarks and gluons. These particles are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is one of the fundamental forces of nature. The strong nuclear force is extremely strong, but it only acts over very short distances, which means that the particles in the nucleus are packed very tightly together.

The high density and strong nuclear force in the nucleus create a very strong gravitational field, which causes time dilation. This means that time appears to move slower in the nucleus than it does for an observer outside the nucleus.

The effect of time dilation in atoms and nuclei is very small and can only be measured with very precise experimental techniques. However, it is a well-established prediction of the theory of relativity and has been confirmed by numerous experiments.

According to the theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent, and they can be converted into each other according to the famous equation E=mc², where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

The rate at which time flows is related to the energy and mass of a system through the concept of time dilation. According to the theory of relativity, time appears to move slower in regions with stronger gravitational fields or at higher speeds relative to an observer. This means that if a system has a high energy or mass density, the gravitational field it creates can cause time to flow more slowly.

To convert energy into mass, a system must have a sufficiently high energy density to create a gravitational field strong enough to slow down time to the point where the energy can "condense" into mass. This is the basis of pair production, where high-energy photons can create pairs of particles (usually an electron and a positron) with mass. The energy of the photon is converted into the mass of the particles, but this process can only occur if the photon has enough energy to create the mass and the gravitational field it creates is strong

enough to slow down time to the necessary degree.

The rate at which time would need to flow for energy to become mass, depends on the energy density of the system and the strength of the gravitational field it creates. In general, the higher the energy density and the stronger the gravitational field, the slower time would need to flow for energy to become mass. However, the precise rate of time flow required for energy to become mass would depend on the specific details of the system and the process involved.

 I can provide a brief derivation of the equation E=mc² and its variation involving time dilation.

The equation E=mc² is a consequence of the theory of relativity, which relates energy, mass, and the speed of light. The basic idea behind the equation is that mass and energy are equivalent, and they can be converted into each other.

The derivation of E=mc² starts with the mass-energy equivalence principle, which states that the total energy of a system is equal to the sum of its rest energy (energy due to the mass of the system) and its kinetic energy (energy due to its motion):

E = E(rest) + E(kinetic)

According to the theory of relativity, the rest energy of a system is equal to its mass times the square of the speed of light:

E(rest) = mc²

Combining these two equations, we get:

E = mc² + E(kinetic)

Now, if we consider a system at rest (i.e., with zero kinetic energy), we get:

E = mc²

This is the famous equation E=mc², which shows that mass and energy are equivalent and can be converted into each other.

As for the variation involving time dilation, we can start with the formula for the relativistic energy of a particle:

E² = (mc²)² + (pc)²

Where E is the total energy of the particle, m is its rest mass, p is its momentum, and c is the speed of light. Using the relationship between momentum and velocity (p = mv) and the 

equation for time dilation (t' = t/√(1 - v²/c²)), we can rewrite this equation as:

E² = (mc²)² + (mv)²c²/(1 - v²/c²)

Expanding and simplifying this equation, we get:

E = γmc²

Where γ is the Lorentz factor, which is given by:

γ = 1/√(1 - v²/c²)

This equation shows that the total energy of a particle is proportional to its mass and a factor that depends on its velocity relative to an observer. This factor takes into account the effect of time dilation, which causes time to flow more slowly for a moving object and increases its effective mass.

There fore we can see that Time is an extremely important part of the universe ,irrespective of the presence of an observer or not. It determines everything 

by determining the flow of information in relation to the type of space or dimension it finds itself. Due to the fact that in our universe our perception is dependant 

on electromagnetic force which is transmitted by a photon all our limititations seem to arise from a certain limit or constant and that is the speed of light .However the universe isn't limited by the 

speed of light to transfer information or energy and adopts to the type of dimension it finds its self in .So in summary time can flow backwards when we exceed the speed of light ,Time can create matter when the speed of light is 

extremely slow in a special kind of dimension etc. 

what is quantum entanglement and what is the force or phenomenon responsible for it.

what is quantum entanglement and what is the force or phenomenon responsible for it.

The history of quantum entanglement can be traced back to the early days of quantum mechanics in the 1920s and 1930s.

In 1927, the German physicists Werner Heisenberg and Wolfgang Pauli proposed the concept of "entanglement" or "Verschränkung" in German, to describe a peculiar property of quantum mechanics. They realized that when two quantum systems interacted and became "entangled", their individual properties became indeterminate and instead became correlated with each other.

The concept of entanglement gained further attention in 1935 when Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen published a paper that became known as the EPR paper. They argued that the entanglement of two particles violated the principles of local realism, which stated that physical properties should exist independently of observation and that distant events should not be able to instantaneously influence each other. They proposed a thought experiment to show that entangled particles must have a more complete description than was currently allowed by quantum mechanics.

In 1964, the Irish physicist John Stewart Bell proposed a way to test the EPR paradox experimentally using a set of inequalities that became known as "Bell's inequalities". He showed that if the predictions of quantum mechanics were correct, certain correlations between entangled particles could violate these inequalities and thus demonstrate the nonlocality of entanglement.

Experiments testing Bell's inequalities were conducted in the 1970s and 1980s, and they consistently showed violations of the inequalities that were not possible under the assumptions of local realism. These results provided strong evidence for the reality of entanglement and the nonlocality of quantum mechanics.

Since then, entanglement has become a key concept in quantum mechanics, with applications in fields such as quantum cryptography, quantum computing, and quantum teleportation. The study of entanglement continues to be an active area of research in both theoretical and experimental physics.

The following are the various developments since the phenomenon of quantum entanglement was discovered.

Since the inception of quantum entanglement in the 1920s and 1930s, there have been many developments in the study of entangled quantum systems. Here are some of the key developments:

Bell's inequalities and experimental tests: In 1964, John Stewart Bell proposed a set of inequalities that could be used to test for the nonlocality of entangled quantum systems. These inequalities were violated by the predictions of quantum mechanics, leading to a series of experimental tests that confirmed the reality of entanglement and the nonlocality of quantum mechanics.

Applications in quantum cryptography: The correlations between entangled particles can be used to generate secure keys for quantum cryptography, which is a method for secure communication that is based on the principles of quantum mechanics. Entanglement-based quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols have been implemented in the lab and have shown promise for secure communication.

Applications in quantum computing: Entangled states can be used to perform quantum operations that are faster than classical operations, leading to the development of quantum algorithms and quantum computers. Entanglement is a key resource for quantum computing and quantum error correction.

Applications in quantum teleportation: The properties of an entangled state can be used to transfer the quantum state of one particle to another particle in a process called quantum teleportation. This has potential applications for secure communication and quantum computing.

Developments in theory: The study of entanglement has led to new theoretical insights into the foundations of quantum mechanics, including the role of entanglement in the measurement problem, the nature of quantum correlations, and the relationship between quantum mechanics and classical physics.

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon that occurs in the field of quantum mechanics, which is the branch of physics that describes the behavior of particles at the smallest scales. In quantum entanglement, two or more particles become linked in such a way that their quantum states become correlated, meaning that the properties of one particle are dependent on the properties of the other particle.

When two particles are entangled, any measurement made on one particle will instantaneously affect the state of the other particle, regardless of the distance between them. This property of entanglement has been referred to as "spooky action at a distance" and has been verified through numerous experiments.

Entanglement plays a critical role in the development of quantum technologies such as quantum computing and quantum cryptography. It also has implications for our understanding of the nature of reality and the fundamental principles of physics.

A mathematical description of quantum entanglement is typically given in terms of a state vector, which is a mathematical object used to describe the state of a quantum system.

Suppose we have two particles, A and B, that are in an entangled state. We can describe this state using the following equation:

|Ψ⟩ = a|0⟩A |1⟩B + b|1⟩A |0⟩B

In this equation, |0⟩A and |1⟩A represent two possible states of particle A, and |0⟩B and |1⟩B represent two possible states of particle B. The coefficients a and b represent the probability amplitudes for the particles to be in each of the possible states.

The entangled state described by this equation means that if we measure particle A and find it to be in state |0⟩A, then particle B will be in state |1⟩B with probability |a|^2 and in state |0⟩B with probability |b|^2. Similarly, if we measure particle A and find it to be in state |1⟩A, then particle B will be in state |0⟩B with probability |a|^2 and in state |1⟩B with probability |b|^2.

This equation demonstrates the correlation between the states of the two particles, which is the hallmark of quantum entanglement.

A photon is a fundamental particle of light and electromagnetic radiation. It is the smallest possible unit of light, and it has no mass or electric charge.

In physics, light is understood as a wave-like phenomenon, but it can also be described as a stream of particles called photons. Photons are quantized packets of energy that are emitted or absorbed when charged particles, such as electrons, change their energy levels or when charged particles accelerate.

Photons exhibit properties of both particles and waves, and their behavior is described by the principles of quantum mechanics. For example, photons can interfere with one another like waves, and they can also be localized and detected like particles.

Photons play a critical role in a wide range of phenomena, from the transmission of information in optical fibers to the generation of electricity in solar cells. They also have many applications in fields such as medical imaging, telecommunications, and quantum computing.Photons are elementary particles, which means they are not composed of smaller sub-particles. Therefore, they do not have a size in the traditional sense.

However, the wavelength and frequency of a photon are related to its energy and momentum, and these quantities can be used to describe certain aspects of the photon's behavior. The wavelength of a photon can range from picometers to meters, depending on its frequency and energy. In general, photons with higher energy (e.g., gamma rays) have shorter wavelengths, while photons with lower energy (e.g., radio waves) have longer wavelengths.

Despite not having a size, the effects of photons can be observed through their interactions with matter. For example, when a photon is absorbed by an atom, it can cause an electron to move to a higher energy level. This process is the basis for many phenomena in optics and quantum mechanics. photons can have wavelengths that are incredibly long. The wavelength of a photon is inversely proportional to its frequency, and since frequency is related to energy, photons with very low energy can have very long wavelengths.

For example, radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that have very long wavelengths, ranging from centimeters to kilometers. These radio waves are still composed of individual photons, but the photons have very low energy and very long wavelengths.Despite their large wavelength, radio photons still travel at the speed of light and exhibit wave-like properties such as interference and diffraction. However, their low energy and long wavelength make them less useful for many applications that require higher energy photons such as visible light, X-rays, or gamma rays.

Here's an equation that describes two subatomic particles, A and B, that are entangled by a single photon of long wavelength:

|Ψ⟩ = 1/√2(|0⟩A |1⟩B - |1⟩A |0⟩B)

In this equation, |0⟩A and |1⟩A represent the two possible states of particle A, and |0⟩B and |1⟩B represent the two possible states of particle B. The coefficients before each state represent the probability amplitudes for the particles to be in each of the possible states.

The entangled state described by this equation means that if we measure particle A and find it to be in state |0⟩A, then particle B will be in state |1⟩B with a probability of 1/2 and in state |0⟩B with a probability of 1/2. Similarly, if we measure particle A and find it to be in state |1⟩A, then particle B will be in state |0⟩B with a probability of 1/2 and in state |1⟩B with a probability of 1/2.

The long-wavelength photon that entangles the two particles is not explicitly included in the equation, but it is implied as the mediator of the entanglement. This type of entanglement, where two particles are entangled through the exchange of a single photon without continous interaction, is known as "quantum teleportation" and has been demonstrated experimentally.

However is the photon is continously having an interaction or maintaining a stable state it can be just quantuam entanglement,where a change in one body will instaneously have an effect of another body.

An equation that describes the entangled state of two particles, A and B, that are entangled by a photon with a wavelength of 200,000 meters:

|Ψ⟩ = 1/√2(|0⟩A |1⟩B - e^(iλ/2π) |1⟩A |0⟩B |1⟩photon - e^(-iλ/2π) |1⟩A |0⟩B |0⟩photon)

In this equation, λ represents the wavelength of the photon, which is 200,000 meters in this case. |0⟩A and |1⟩A represent the two possible states of particle A, and |0⟩B and |1⟩B represent the two possible states of particle B. |0⟩photon and |1⟩photon represent the two possible states of the photon.

The coefficients before each state represent the probability amplitudes for the particles and photon to be in each of the possible states. The first term in the equation represents the state where particle A is in state |0⟩A and particle B is in state |1⟩B, while the second term represents the state where particle A is in state |1⟩A and particle B is in state |0⟩B, with the photon in state |1⟩photon.

The last two terms represent the state where particle A is in state |1⟩A and particle B is in state |0⟩B, with the photon in either state |0⟩photon or |1⟩photon, respectively. The coefficients in these terms involve the phase factor e^(iλ/2π) and its complex conjugate e^(-iλ/2π), which are related to the wavelength of the photon and the distance between the particles.

Note that this equation assumes that the two particles and the photon are in a pure state, and it describes their entangled state at a specific moment in time. The state of the particles and the photon can change over time due to their interactions with their environment, and this may affect their entanglement.

 it is possible to describe the mathematical state of entanglement of two particles A and B that are maintained in a steady state by a photon with a wavelength of 200,000 meters.

In general, the entangled state of two particles A and B can be described using a wave function or state vector, which is a mathematical representation of the probabilities of the different possible outcomes of measurements on the particles. The wave function typically involves complex numbers, and its evolution over time is governed by the Schrödinger equation.

For two particles A and B that are entangled by a photon, the state of the system can be described using a tensor product of the individual states of each particle and the photon. In the case of a photon with a wavelength of 200,000 meters, the state of the photon can be approximated as a plane wave with a well-defined momentum and energy, while the states of the particles can be represented as spin states, energy levels, or other relevant properties depending on the system.

The entangled state of the two particles and the photon can then be described using a combined wave function or state vector, which takes into account the correlations between the particles and the photon due to their entanglement. The exact form of this wave function depends on the specific details of the system and the measurement basis chosen for the particles.

In summary, the mathematical description of the state of entanglement of two particles A and B maintained in a steady state by a photon of wavelength 200,000 meters would involve a wave function or state vector that represents the correlations between the particles and the photon due to their entanglement. This wave function can be determined using the principles of quantum mechanics and the specific details of the system.

image quantum entanglement.

How big is a photon

quantum entanglement

Our brains have a rudimentary quantum computing ability, that emerged as a result of its complexity and perhaps all conscious entities must have some intentional or emergent quantum computation to achieve it.

Our brains have a rudimentary quantum computing ability, that emerged as a result of its complexity and perhaps all conscious entities must have some intentional or emergent quantum computation to achieve it.

1) What is quantum computing and what are its requirements?.

2) What are Neurons, how do they work and what hidden secrets do they possess.

3) Types of electrical activity in the brain.

4) Why it’s inevitable that quantum computation, understanding, intelligence, consciousness would mathematically emerge in the brain .

Quantum computing is an emerging field of computer science and physics that has the potential to revolutionize the way we process information. Unlike classical computing, which uses bits that can be in either a 0 or 1 state, quantum computing uses qubits, which can be in a superposition of both states at once. This allows for exponential speedup in certain types of calculations, which has implications for a wide range of industries, including pharmaceuticals, finance, and cryptography. There are several requirements for building a quantum computer, and they are quite different from those of classical computers. Quantum computers rely on quantum bits (qubits) instead of classical bits to perform computations. Here are some of the key requirements for a quantum computer:

1. Qubits: As mentioned, qubits are the fundamental building blocks of quantum computers. Qubits must be able to maintain their quantum state (superposition or entanglement) for long enough to perform quantum operations, which requires very precise control over the qubits' environment.

2. Quantum gates: To perform operations on qubits, quantum gates are needed. These gates are the quantum equivalent of classical logic gates, and they must be able to operate on superposition and entangled states.

3. Quantum error correction: Because quantum systems are inherently noisy and prone to errors, error correction is critical to building a reliable quantum computer. Quantum error correction codes are designed to protect quantum information from decoherence caused by environmental interactions.

4. Control electronics: Quantum computers require precise control over qubits and gates, which means that specialized control electronics are needed.

5. Cryogenic cooling: Qubits must be kept at extremely low temperatures (near absolute zero) to minimize environmental interference.

6. Quantum computers require specialized software that is capable of programming and controlling the qubits and gates. This software is significantly different from classical computer software.

     It is possible to use a conductor with electrons as quantum dots to act as a quantum computer. This is known as a quantum dot computer, and it operates by manipulating the spin states of individual electrons to perform computations. However, quantum dot computers have not yet achieved the same level of scalability and reliability as other types of quantum computers, such as superconducting qubit computers or ion trap computers.

There are several different types of qubits that are used in quantum computing. Here are some of the most common types:

1. Superconducting qubits: Superconducting qubits are made from tiny loops of superconducting wire, and they operate at very low temperatures. They are currently one of the most widely used types of qubits in quantum computers.

2. Trapped ions: Trapped ions are individual atoms that are trapped in a magnetic field and manipulated using lasers. They are highly isolated from their environment, which makes them less prone to errors.

3. Quantum dots: Quantum dots are tiny semiconductor particles that can trap electrons. They are being explored as a potential qubit technology, as they have shown promise for their long coherence times and scalability.

4. Topological qubits: Topological qubits are a theoretical type of qubit that are based on the topological properties of matter. They are thought to be highly robust against errors, but they have not yet been realized experimentally.

5. Photonic qubits: Photonic qubits are based on the properties of photons, or particles of light. They are highly resistant to noise and can be transmitted over long distances, which makes them a promising technology for quantum communication.

Quantum computing has several strengths that make it a potentially powerful technology a) Exponential speedup: Quantum computers can perform certain calculations exponentially faster than classical computers. b) Parallelism: Quantum computers can perform many calculations at the same time, which makes them well-suited to certain types of problems. c) Novel algorithms: Quantum computing has enabled the development of new algorithms that are not possible on classical computers.

However, there are also several weaknesses of quantum computing that need to be addressed:

1. Decoherence: Qubits are sensitive to environmental noise, which can cause them to lose their quantum properties and become classical bits.

2. Error correction: Quantum computers require error correction to prevent errors from accumulating and causing computation to fail.

3. Scalability: Quantum computers are difficult to scale up to larger numbers of qubits, which limits their ability to solve larger problems.

There are several different mechanisms used for controlling qubits in quantum computing, depending on the specific technology being used. 

1. Microwave pulses: Microwave pulses are commonly used to manipulate the state of superconducting qubits. These pulses are applied to the qubits using microwave resonators, which are essentially small circuits that can generate and detect microwave radiation.

2. Laser beams: Laser beams are often used to manipulate the state of trapped ion qubits. The lasers can be tuned to specific frequencies to create the desired quantum gates (operations) between qubits.

3. Magnetic fields: Magnetic fields can be used to manipulate the state of certain types of qubits, such as those based on electron spins in quantum dots. By applying a magnetic field, scientists can control the orientation of the spins and thus the state of the qubits.

4. Electric fields: Electric fields can also be used to manipulate the state of some types of qubits. For example, electric fields can be used to manipulate the position of trapped ions, which in turn can be used to control the state of the qubits.

5. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR): In NMR-based quantum computing, the qubits are typically formed by the nuclei of atoms in a liquid or solid material. External magnetic fields and radiofrequency pulses are used to control the state of the qubits.

Error correction is also critical for quantum computing, as errors can accumulate quickly and cause the computation to fail. Quantum error correction (QEC). QEC is based on the idea of encoding quantum information in a way that makes it resistant to errors.

1. The most common QEC technique is called the surface code. In the surface code, qubits are arranged in a two-dimensional array, and each qubit is connected to its neighbors by entangled pairs of qubits. These entangled pairs, called stabilizer qubits, allow scientists to detect and correct errors in the computation. When an error occurs, it causes the state of one or more qubits to deviate from its expected value. The stabilizer qubits detect these deviations by measuring the state of several qubits simultaneously. If an error is detected, scientists can use the information from the measurements to correct the state of the qubits and restore the correct computation.

2. Topological codes: Topological codes are a type of error-correcting code that are based on the properties of topological materials.

3. Code concatenation: Code concatenation is a method of combining multiple error-correcting codes.

What are Neurons :

A neuron is a specialized cell that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. It has three main parts: the cell body (also called the soma), the dendrites, and the axon.

The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles necessary for the neuron's survival and maintenance. The dendrites are branching structures that receive information from other neurons and transmit it towards the cell body. The axon is a long, thin fiber that carries the neuron's output signal, called an action potential, away from the cell body and towards other neurons or target cells.

There are many types of neurons in the brain, but they can be broadly categorized into three types based on their function: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons receive information from the environment and transmit it to the brain. Motor neurons transmit signals from the brain to muscles and glands to initiate movement or secretion. Interneurons are located within the brain and spinal cord, and they facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons.

 It's important to note that the brain doesn't work like a computer in the traditional sense. However, some researchers have proposed that certain patterns of neural activity could be analogous to logical operations performed by computer circuits. For example, a group of neurons firing together could be thought of as performing an "AND" operation, meaning they would only produce an output signal if both inputs were present, but firing together also offers some error correction mechanism in terms of a quantum machine which some, have proposed as an error correction for the different ions or electrons .

When an action potential travels down the axon, it causes a temporary reversal of the electrical charge across the cell membrane. This depolarization triggers the opening of ion channels, allowing positively charged ions such as sodium (Na+) to enter the cell and negative ions such as potassium (K+) to exit the cell. This influx and efflux of ions across the cell membrane creates a wave of charge that propagates down the axon, ultimately leading to the release of neurotransmitters at the axon terminal.

The motion of ions across a membrane in the axon perhaps does not involve spin, and there is no preferred spin direction at ionic level, but most ion traps do have positive and negative ions and the brain has sodium ,potassium ,calcium and chloride ions that are negatively charged. but at electron levels there is no researched data. Ion channels are selective for specific types of ions based on their size and charge, and they do not distinguish between ions based on their spin.

On average, there are about 10 million sodium-potassium pumps present in each neuron of the human body. These pumps play a crucial role in maintaining the resting membrane potential of the neuron, which is important for generating action potentials and transmitting signals.

Sodium-potassium pumps do not act as capacitors in the traditional sense. Capacitors store electrical charge, while sodium-potassium pumps actively transport ions (sodium and potassium) against their concentration gradients, consuming energy in the process. However, the membrane potential created by the sodium-potassium pumps can be thought of as a form of electrical potential energy, similar to the charge stored in a capacitor.

One can think of the membrane potential of a neuron as an electrical circuit with capacitance and resistance, but it's important to note that the behavior of this circuit is different from that of a simple capacitor or resistor circuit.

The sodium-potassium pumps create and maintain a voltage gradient across the cell membrane, which can be thought of as the potential energy stored in a capacitor. However, the membrane also has a resistance, which is created by ion channels and other membrane proteins that allow or restrict the flow of ions across the membrane. This resistance determines how easily ions can flow across the membrane and affects the rate at which the membrane potential changes in response to stimuli.

Therefore, while the membrane potential of a neuron can be thought of as a capacitor with resistance, the behavior of this circuit is much more complex and depends on many factors, such as the specific ion channels present in the membrane and the characteristics of the stimuli acting on the neuron.

The estimated number of neurons in the human brain is around 100 billion (10^11). Assuming an average of 10 million sodium-potassium pumps per neuron, this would give us a total of approximately (10^11 x 10^7) = 1 x 10^18 sodium-potassium pumps in the entire human brain. This doesn’t include the total number of electrons in the brain which can also perform quantum computations in neurons or conductors controlled by an electric field. The enormous number of ion pumps highlights the important role that these pumps play in maintaining the proper functioning of the nervous system and the possible inevitable emergence of rudimentary quantum computation.

 While the sodium-potassium pumps in the brain do store electrical energy, it's important to note that the amount of energy stored per unit distance is not particularly large. The electrical potential created by the sodium-potassium pumps is on the order of tens to hundreds of millivolts, which is relatively small compared to the potential differences that can be generated in other electrical systems.

However, what is remarkable about the brain is not the amount of energy stored per unit distance, but rather the complexity and efficiency with which this energy is used to support a wide range of neural processes, including information processing, memory formation, and communication between neurons. The sheer number and diversity of neurons in the brain, along with their complex patterns of connectivity and activity, allow for an incredible range of cognitive and behavioral functions that are unparalleled in the natural world.

Types of electrical activity in the brain:

The electrical activity generated by the brain is predominantly AC, meaning that it is characterized by fluctuations in voltage and current that change direction periodically. This electrical activity is generated by the synchronized activity of large groups of neurons, which produce rhythmic patterns of electrical activity that can be measured using electrodes placed on the scalp (a technique known as electroencephalography or EEG).

The rhythmic patterns of electrical activity generated by the brain are typically categorized based on their frequency, with different frequency bands associated with different cognitive and behavioral states. For example, alpha waves (8-12 Hz) are typically associated with relaxed wakefulness, while delta waves (0.5-4 Hz) are associated with deep sleep.

While the electrical activity of the brain is predominantly AC, it is important to note that individual neurons also generate DC signals as a result of the movement of ions across their cell membranes. These DC signals can be detected using specialized electrodes and are thought to play a role in various physiological processes, including the regulation of blood flow to the brain.

 Why its inevitable that quantum computation, understanding, intelligence, consciousness would mathematically emerge in the brain .

In my previous posts I discussed in detail how the fact that the total number of neurons and interconnections in the brain was extremely large and uniform understanding, intelligence, consciousness does emerge spontaneously. I described the fine structure of computation of the brain as an inverse of the total neurons as a measure and the smaller the figure the more conscious an entity would be, I also stated that the fine structure of computation 1/n where n is the number of the interconnected neurons in the processing unit determines how intelligent an entity is implying consciousness isn’t only in the domain of life forms or humans ,

Today I have discussed in detail another totally different aspect of the brain, its ability to spontaneously acquire quantum computing to a certain degree and I called it rudimentary quantum computing and how and why it would arise due to the small value of the fine computational structure constant 1/1x10^11= 1x10^-11 but also if we included the fine ion structure involved in computation which is 1x10^18 ion gates. Quantum computation is inevitable but rudimentary as the brain wasn’t made for quantum computation but achieves it simply due to uniform resonance of ions and electrons. The brain does possess uniformly rhythmic electrical activity with fields that control these ions and electrons.

The Article was written by Kasule Francis

11/3/23

Image of the human brain.

electron qubits 

Philosophically speaking what would we need to design Deep learning or Artificial Intelligence systems that can Invent on their own without human ideas or input and is it possible to do so .

An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an idea is unique enough either as a standalone invention or as a significant improvement over the work of others.

An inventor creates or discovers an invention. The word inventor comes from the Latin verb invenire, invent-, to find. Although inventing is closely associated with science and engineering, inventors are not necessarily engineers or scientists. Due to advances in artificial intelligence, the term "inventor" no longer exclusively applies to an occupation.

Another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviors adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines and books. Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of human knowledge, experience or capability.

There three kinds of Invention

Inventions are of three kinds: scientific-technological, sociopolitical (including economics and law), and humanistic, or cultural.

Sociopolitical inventions comprise new laws, institutions, and procedures that change modes of social behavior and establish new forms of human interaction and organization. Examples include the British Parliament, the US Constitution, the Manchester (UK) General Union of Trades, the Boy Scouts, the Red Cross, the Olympic Games, the United Nations, the European Union, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as movements such as socialism, Zionism, suffragism, feminism, and animal-rights veganism.

Humanistic inventions encompass culture in its entirety and are as transformative and important as any in the sciences, although people tend to take them for granted. In the domain of linguistics, for example, many alphabets have been inventions, as are all neologisms (Shakespeare invented about 1,700 words). Literary inventions include the epic, tragedy, comedy, the novel, the sonnet, the Renaissance, neoclassicism, Romanticism, Symbolism, Aestheticism, Socialist Realism, Surrealism, postmodernism, and (according to Freud) psychoanalysis. Among the inventions of artists and musicians are oil painting, printmaking, photography, cinema, musical tonality, atonality, jazz, rock, opera, and the symphony orchestra. Philosophers have invented logic (several times), dialectics, idealism, 

materialism, utopia, anarchism, semiotics, phenomenology, behaviorism, positivism, pragmatism, and deconstruction. Religious thinkers are responsible for such inventions as monotheism, pantheism, Methodism, Mormonism, iconoclasm, puritanism, deism, secularism, ecumenism, and the Baháʼí Faith. Some of these disciplines, genres, and trends may seem to have existed eternally or to have emerged spontaneously of their own accord, but most of them have had inventors. 

Before we analyse if we could in principal design algorithms that would enable deep leaning systems or Artificial intelligence to invent without human assistance ,guidance or ideas meaning artificial intelligence systems would look at the different problems faced in different disciplines and find better ways of doing things or totally new ways of doing things .We need to examine in detail what is the process through which we humans and other intelligent lifeforms on earth and perhaps elsewhere got through.

The process of invention or  Ideas for an invention may be developed on paper or on a computer, by writing or drawing, by trial and error, by making models, by experimenting, by testing and/or by making the invention in its whole form. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention. Collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists.

There different ways of invention:

1)Invention is often a creative process. An open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection or relationship can spark an invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields and Several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention. 

2)Play Play may lead to invention. Childhood curiosity, experimentation, and imagination can develop one's play instinct. Inventors feel the need to play with things that interest them, and to explore, and this internal drive brings about novel creations.[14][15]

Sometimes inventions and ideas may seem to arise spontaneously while daydreaming, especially when the mind is free from its usual concerns.

3) Re-envisioning: To invent is to see anew. Inventors often envision a new idea, seeing it in their mind's eye. New ideas can arise when the conscious mind turns away from the subject or problem when the inventor's focus is on something else, or while relaxing or sleeping. A novel idea may come in a flash—a Eureka! moment. For example, after years of working to figure out the general theory of relativity, the solution came to Einstein suddenly in a dream in one clear vision". Inventions can also be accidental, such as in the case of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).

4)Insight: Insight can also be a vital element of invention. Such inventive insight may begin with questions, doubt or a hunch. It may begin by recognizing that something unusual or accidental may be useful or that it could open a new avenue for exploration. For example, the odd metallic color of plastic made by accidentally adding a thousand times too much catalyst led scientists to explore its metal-like properties, inventing electrically conductive plastic and light emitting plastic-—an invention that won the Nobel Prize in 2000 and has led to innovative lighting, display screens, wallpaper and much more conductive polymer, and organic light-emitting diode or OLED).

5)Exploration: Invention is often an exploratory process with an uncertain or unknown outcome. There are failures as well as successes. Inspiration can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea, inventions typically must be developed. 

6) Improvement: Inventors may, for example, try to improve something by making it more effective, healthier, faster, more efficient, easier to use, serve more purposes, longer lasting, cheaper, more ecologically friendly, or aesthetically different, lighter weight, more ergonomic, structurally different, with new light or color properties, etc.

So we have looked at the different kinds of inventions and the different ways of inventions and we are beginning to see that some ways of inventions would be much more difficult, but not impossible for today’s deep learning machines and other ways would be much easier. But all led to the same result, that is a new invention or a new way of doing things,in all aspects of our lives from technological to sociological aspects.

So in summary the process of invention includes the following:

The process of inventing can vary depending on the individual and the specific invention they are working on, but generally speaking, it involves several key steps:

1. Idea Generation: The first step in inventing is coming up with an idea for a new invention. This can come from anywhere - a problem that needs solving, a new technology or material, or even just a spark of creativity.

2. Research: Once an inventor has an idea, they will typically conduct research to see if it has already been done before, to explore any potential roadblocks, and to gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

3. Design: The next step is to design the invention. This may involve sketching out ideas, building prototypes, and testing different materials and technologies.

4. Development: After the design has been finalized, the invention can be developed. This may involve manufacturing the product or building software, depending on the type of invention.

5. Testing and Refinement: Once the invention has been developed, it will need to be tested and refined. This may involve user testing, market research, or other methods of gathering feedback to improve the product.

6. Patenting: If the invention is deemed to be unique and novel, the inventor may choose to apply for a patent to protect their intellectual property.

7. Commercialization: Finally, the invention can be brought to market. This may involve finding investors or partners, launching a marketing campaign, and building a distribution network.

inventing is a complex process that requires a combination of creativity, research, and technical skills. It can be a challenging journey, but it can also be incredibly rewarding to see an idea come to life and make a difference in the world.

Currently Artificial intelligence systems have no stand-alone mode like those that  the language-based modes or speech recognition, text to image generation modes. 

But AI can assist in the invention process by analyzing vast amounts of data, identifying patterns and potential solutions, and even generating new ideas. 

 AI is also used in various aspects of the invention process, such as generating and evaluating new design ideas, simulating and testing different prototypes, and even assisting in patent searches. AI can also help in the development of new materials or technologies by analyzing data and simulations to optimize performance and efficiency.

However, despite its capabilities, AI still isn’t programmed for creativity, intuition, and problem-solving abilities like humans. It is essential to note that AI is only as good as the data it is trained on and the algorithms it uses. Therefore, human creativity and ingenuity seems still essential in the invention process to identify problems, generate new ideas, and to test and refine prototypes. 

However no matter the complexity of the invention process ,Invention can be reduced to a much simpler process from which will emerge a more complex process leading  to super human invention capabilities.

We can analyze various intentional inventions in history that can led us to write algorithms ,which can then begin the invention process .

AI today is even capable of imagination and even write coding eventually it will even reinvent its very self and a super intelligent system is much safer for us all as I previously stated.

We can look at how humans developed flight over hundreds of years and then write down the processes involved, from which processes we can derive and write  algorithms etc.

In summary If I was developing  an “Inventing model of AI named "The sixth element " I would do the following.

Humans in most cases begin inventing because they are facing a problem, but AI may not be able to know that humans are facing a problem unless its told so .There fore my sixth element would easily identify the problems people are facing from discussions on the internet or research institutions or grants issued and check if that problem has been solved or is in the process of being solved .

It could send a message to the different institutes or colleges to be sure  if it’s a problem that needs solving and  it will have identified very many problems to solve  in a short time and could run several problems in various disciplines simultaneously from propulsion to free energy , global warming and  particle physics that currently use particle accelerators which are endangering our planet.

Then it would  search or observe the behavior of similar patterns of information and attempt to develop new patterns or modify existing patterns to solve its problems.

 It would run simulations of the most successful models or the most promising models or it could forward them to humans in charge if it involves a stage that its not permitted to research or can’t eg new drugs or other chemicals  for assistance .who will report back If it was successful after a certain period.

 If successful the project is removed from the active directory. 

But sixth element can run hundreds of inventions at once some are easy while others aren’t so easy and need areas of human assistance for now.

All these that I have described to you is possible, it’s safe and would make our lives much better, create jobs and allow us to explore our galaxy and beyond.

This Article was written by Kasule Francis

Drkasulefrancis5@gmail.com

5/3/2023

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