In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles (for example, a proton, neutron, or meson), or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other particles (for example, an electron, photon, or muon). Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact.
Experiments show that light could behave like a stream of particles (called photons) as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led to the concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale particles behave like both particles and waves.
Another concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, cannot be measured exactly. The wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to more massive particles as well.
Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field theory.
Compositions of subatomic particles.
Subatomic particles are either "elementary", i.e. not made of multiple other particles, or "composite" and made of more than one elementary particle bound together.
The elementary particles of the Standard Model are:
1)Six "flavors" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top;
2)Six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino;
3)Twelve gauge bosons (force carriers): the photon of electromagnetism, the three W and Z bosons of the weak force, and the eight gluons of the strong force;
Hadrons
Nearly all composite particles contain multiple quarks (and/or antiquarks) bound together by gluons (with a few exceptions with no quarks, such as positronium and meconium). Those containing few (≤ 5) quarks (including antiquarks) are called hadrons. Due to a property known as color confinement, quarks are never found singly but always occur in hadrons containing multiple quarks.
The hadrons are divided by number of quarks (including antiquarks) into the baryons containing an odd number of quarks (almost always 3), of which the proton and neutron (the two nucleons) are by far the best known; and the mesons containing an even number of quarks (almost always 2, one quark and one antiquark), of which the pions and kaons are the best known.
Except for the proton and neutron, all other hadrons are unstable and decay into other particles in microseconds or less. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. These commonly bind together into an atomic nucleus, e.g. a helium-4 nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons. Most hadrons do not live long enough to bind into nucleus-like composites; those that do (other than the proton and neutron) form exotic nuclei.
Any subatomic particle, like any particle in the three-dimensional space that obeys the laws of quantum mechanics, can be either a boson (with integer spin) or a fermion (with odd half-integer spin).
In the Standard Model, all the elementary fermions have spin 1/2, and are divided into the quarks which carry color charge and therefore feel the strong interaction, and the leptons which do not. The elementary bosons comprise the gauge bosons (photon, W and Z, gluons) with spin 1, while the Higgs boson is the only elementary particle with spin zero.
Due to the laws for spin of composite particles, the baryons (3 quarks) have spin either 1/2 or 3/2, and are therefore fermions;
The mesons (2 quarks) have integer spin of either 0 or 1, and are therefore bosons.
Subatomic Particle Decay
Most subatomic particles are not stable outside their dimensions. All leptons, as well as baryons decay by either the strong force or weak force (except for the proton). Protons are not known to decay, although whether they are "truly" stable is unknown, as some very important Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) actually require it. The μ and τ muons, as well as their antiparticles, decay by the weak force. Neutrinos (and antineutrinos) do not decay, but a related phenomenon of neutrino oscillations is thought to exist even in vacuums. The electron and its antiparticle, the positron, are theoretically stable due to charge conservation unless a lighter particle having a magnitude of electric charge ≤ e exists (which is unlikely). Its charge is not shown yet.
All observable subatomic particles have their electric charge an integer which is a multiple of the elementary charge. The Standard Model's quarks have "non-integer" electric charges, namely, multiple of 1⁄3 e, but quarks (and other combinations with non-integer electric charge) cannot be isolated due to color confinement. For baryons, mesons, and their antiparticles the constituent quarks' charges sum up to an integer multiple of e.
The theory of Relativity
According to the theory of relativity, time dilation occurs because time is not an absolute quantity, but rather depends on the relative motion of two observers. Specifically, when two observers are in relative motion to each other, they will each experience time passing at a different rate.
This effect is caused by the fact that the speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference, meaning that the laws of physics must be consistent for all observers moving at a constant velocity.
This leads to the phenomenon of time dilation, where time appears to "slow down" for an observer in motion relative to another observer who is at rest.
The equation that describes time dilation is given by:
Δt' = Δt / √(1 - v^2/c^2)
where Δt is the time interval measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the event being measured, Δt' is the time interval measured by an observer who is in motion relative to the event, v is the relative velocity between the two observers, and c is the speed of light.
This equation shows that as the relative velocity between two observers approaches the speed of light, time dilation becomes more significant, and the time interval measured by the moving observer becomes increasingly smaller compared to the time interval measured by the stationary observer. This effect has been observed in experiments involving high-speed particles and is a key prediction of the theory of relativity.
According to the theory of relativity, an object traveling at the speed of light would experience infinite time dilation, meaning that time appears to come to a complete stop for the object. Therefore, it is not meaningful to ask what the length of the object would be at a stationary time, because the concept of "stationary time" does not apply to an object traveling at the speed of light.
However, we can still calculate the length contraction that would occur for an object traveling at a speed very close to the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, the length of an object as measured by an observer in motion relative to the object is given by:
L' = L / √(1 - v^2/c^2)
where L is the length of the object as measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the object, L' is the length of the object as measured by an observer who is in motion relative to the object, v is the relative velocity between the two observers, and c is the speed of light.
If we assume that the object has a rest length of 1 meter and is traveling at a speed very close to the speed of light (let's say v = 0.999c), we can calculate the length of the object as measured by an observer in motion relative to the object:
L' = 1 m / √(1 - (0.999c)^2/c^2) = 22.4 cm
This means that the length of the object would appear to be contracted to 22.4 centimeters when measured by an observer in motion relative to the object.
According to the theory of relativity, a photon traveling at the speed of light experiences time dilation, which means that time appears to come to a complete stop for the photon. From the perspective of a photon, there is no time between its emission and absorption, because it experiences the entire journey at once.
Therefore, it is not meaningful to talk about the "time" of a photon.
As for the size of a photon, it is not possible to talk about the size of a photon in the same way that we talk about the size of a macroscopic object. Photons are elementary particles and are believed to be point-like, meaning that they do not have a physical size or extent. However, photons do have a wavelength and a frequency, which are related to their energy and momentum. The wavelength and frequency of a photon are related by the equation:
λ = c / ν
where λ is the wavelength of the photon, ν is its frequency, and c is the speed of light. The energy of a photon is related to its frequency by the equation:
E = hν
where E is the energy of the photon and h is Planck's constant.
The concept of time moving at 0 seconds is not physically meaningful, so it is difficult to describe what would happen to an object in such a scenario. However, if we assume that time is moving extremely slowly, then we can use the equations of time dilation and length contraction from special relativity to describe the behavior of objects.
Assuming that an object is moving at a speed close to the speed of light, its length would contract according to the following equation:
L = L_0 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2)
where L is the contracted length, L_0 is the object's rest length (i.e., the length it would have if it were at rest), v is its velocity, and c is the speed of light.
If we assume that time is moving very slowly or has stopped, then v would be close to or equal to c, and the denominator of the equation would approach 0. This would cause the contracted length to become infinitely small or collapse to a singularity.
Time moving at speeds of 0 or as a fraction of the speed of light or c
The concept of time becoming zero or negative is quite difficult to imagine in our usual three dimensions, as time seems always positive and cannot be less than zero. However, if we assume that time is moving extremely slowly, then we can use the equations of time dilation and length contraction from special relativity to describe the behavior of objects.
If an object is moving at the speed of light, then its length would contract to zero according to the following equation:
L = L_0 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2)
where L is the contracted length, L_0 is the object's rest length (i.e., the length it would have if it were at rest), v is its velocity, and c is the speed of light.
If we assume that the velocity of the object is exactly equal to c, then the denominator of the equation would be zero, which would cause the contracted length to become infinitely small or collapse to a singularity.
A singularity isn’t a place in space that we know much about, a strange and perhaps a place of perfect reflection or perfect darkness. A place where different physics seems to apply and strange things seem to happen, a place where photons form chains that we can touch. Or patterns of photons that nothing we know of can break.
Time flows in the orders of fractions of the speed of light and the greater the fraction of the speed of light ,the slower the speed at which energy flows, creating physical particles with different masses in proportion to the fractions of the speed of light .The speed of light is also in the orders of fractions of the speeds of light in our three usual dimensions .
How different fractions of the speed of light in different dimensions or “1/c” determines the energy ,masses, time and behavior of different particles in different dimensions of time.
Below are mathematical calculations involving the flow of energy at speeds that are fractions of speeds of light and the different particles they form and perhaps we can find some similarities to see how many exact dimensions actually exist within the atom.
Formation of matter by varying the speeds of light below the value of C.
The Nucleus
The formation of a nucleus involves the binding of protons and neutrons through the strong nuclear force. The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of it's constituent particles, and this mass deficit is known as the mass defect.
The mass defect is related to the binding energy of the nucleus through Einstein's famous equation, E = mc^2.
To calculate the speed of light required to form a nucleus of a particular mass in one second, we would need to know the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the binding energy per nucleon. The binding energy per nucleon varies for different nuclei, so the required speed of light would also vary.
As an example, let's consider the formation of a helium-4 nucleus, which contains two protons and two neutrons. The mass of a helium-4 nucleus is about 4.0026 atomic mass units (amu), while the combined mass of two protons and two neutrons is about 4.0319 amu. The mass defect for helium-4 is therefore 0.0293 amu. Using E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required to create this mass, which is:
E = (0.0293 amu) * (1.66 x 10^-27 kg/amu) * (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 2.61 x 10^-11 joules
To form this nucleus in one second, the speed of light would need to be slowed down such that:
2.61 x 10^-11 joules = (3.00 x 10^8 m/s)^2 * m m = 9.15 x 10^-28 kg
This corresponds to a speed of:
v = m / t = 9.15 x 10^-28 kg / 1 s = 9.15 x 10^-28 m/s
Therefore, to form a helium-4 nucleus in one second, the speed of light would need to be slowed down to 9.15 x 10^-28 m/s.
The proton
To form a proton with a mass of approximately 1.6726219 × 10^-27 kilograms in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to:
c = √[(E/m)^2 - 1]
where E is the energy required to create the mass of the proton and m is the rest mass of the proton.
Using the equation E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required:
E = (1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg) x (299792458 m/s)^2
E = 1.50327655 x 10^-10 joules
Plugging this into the first equation, we get:
c = √[(1.50327655 x 10^-10 J)/(1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg)]^2 – 1
c = 299792458.00000005 m/s
So, the speed of light would only need to slow down by an incredibly small amount of 0.000000016 meters per second to create a proton in one second.
The Neutron
To form a neutron with a mass of approximately 1.6749275 × 10^-27 kilograms in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to:
c = √[(E/m)^2 - 1]
where E is the energy required to create the mass of the neutron and m is the rest mass of the neutron.
Using the equation E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required:
E = (1.6749275 × 10^-27 kg) x (299792458 m/s)^2
E = 1.50534995 x 10^-10 joules
Plugging this into the first equation, we get:
c = √[(1.50534995 x 10^-10 J)/(1.6749275 × 10^-27 kg)]^2 - 1
c = 299792458.00000005 m/s
So, similar to the case of forming a proton, the speed of light would only need to slow down by an incredibly small amount of 0.000000016 meters per second to create a neutron in one second.
An Electron
As we discussed earlier, the formation of a mass requires a conversion of energy to mass, as described by the equation E=mc^2. So to form a mass of an electron in one second, we would need to know how much mass we want to form and then calculate the amount of energy required.
The mass of an electron is approximately 9.11 x 10^-31 kilograms. Using the equation E=mc^2, we can calculate the amount of energy required to form this mass:
E = (9.11 x 10^-31 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 E = 8.19 x 10^-14 joules
Now, we need to determine how slow the speed of light would have to move to form this amount of energy in one second. We can use the equation:
E = Pt
where P is the power and t is the time. Solving for P, we get:
P = E / t P = (8.19 x 10^-14 J) / (1 s) P = 8.19 x 10^-14 watts
Next, we can use the equation for the power of a photon, which is given by:
P = hf / t
where h is Planck's constant, f is the frequency of the photon, and t is the time. Solving for f, we get:
f = P / (h x t) f = (8.19 x 10^-14 W) / (6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 1 s) f = 1.23 x 10^19 Hz
Finally, we can use the equation for the energy of a photon, which is given by:
E = hf
where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency of the photon. Solving for c, we get:
c = E / hf c = (8.19 x 10^-14 J) / (6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 1.23 x 10^19 Hz) c = 5.27 x 10^6 m/s
So to form a mass of an electron in one second, the speed of light would have to slow down to approximately 5.27 million meters per second.
The Muon,Tau ,Neutrino
Muon: To form a mass of one muon (approximately 1.88 x 10^-28 kg) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999964 c (where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, approximately 299,792,458 meters per second).
Tau: To form a mass of one tau (approximately 3.17 x 10^-27 kg) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999852 c.
Neutrino (electron, muon, or tau): Neutrinos have very small masses, ranging from about 0.00001 to 0.00000001 times the mass of an electron. To form a mass of one neutrino (assuming an average mass of 0.00000001 times the mass of an electron) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999999999999996 c (approximately 299,792,457.999999963 meters per second). It's worth noting that neutrinos are typically not thought to be formed by slowing down the speed of light, but rather through other processes such as nuclear reactions.
The Gluon ,Z-boson,W-boson
The formation of a massive particle from energy depends on the amount of energy involved and the rest mass of the resulting particle. The relationship between energy and mass is given by the famous equation E=mc^2, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.
To determine how slow the speed of light should move to form a particular particle in one second, we need to rearrange the equation to solve for c.
c = sqrt(E/m)
where E is the energy required to create the particle, and m is the rest mass of the particle.
For the gluon, z boson, and W boson, they are all elementary particles and have no rest mass. Therefore, their creation requires only the energy required to create them, which can be obtained from their mass-energy equivalence through the equation E=mc^2.
For example, the rest mass of the Z boson is about 91 GeV/c^2, so the energy required to create one Z boson is about:
E = (91 GeV/c^2) * c^2 = 8.187 x 10^-11 J
To form a Z boson in one second, we can plug in the values of E and m into the equation above and solve for c:
c = sqrt(E/m) = sqrt(8.187 x 10^-11 J / 91 GeV/c^2) = 0.9983c
So the speed of light would have to slow down to about 99.83% of its normal value to create a Z boson in one second.
For other particles, the values of E and m will be different, and therefore the required value of c will be different as well.
Formation of matter by variation of time ,at constant universal speeds of light in different dimensions.
The Electron
The speed of light is a fundamental constant of nature, and it does not change. Its value is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second (m/s). The equation E=mc² tells us that the mass of an object is proportional to its energy, and that the conversion factor between energy and mass is the speed of light squared.
If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of an electron, we can use the rest mass of an electron, which is approximately 9.1094 x 10^-31 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:
E = (9.1094 x 10^-31 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.1871 x 10^-14 joules (J)
This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of an electron. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (8.1871 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 8.1871 x 10^-14 s
or approximately 0.82 picoseconds to create the mass of an electron. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Muon
If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of a muon, we can use the rest mass of a muon, which is approximately 1.8835 x 10^-28 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:
E = (1.8835 x 10^-28 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.6925 x 10^-11 joules (J)
This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of a muon. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.6925 x 10^-11 J) / (1 W) = 1.6925 x 10^-11 s
or approximately 16.9 nanoseconds to create the mass of a muon. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Tau
If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of a tau, we can use the rest mass of a tau, which is approximately 3.1675 x 10^-27 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:
E = (3.1675 x 10^-27 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 2.8467 x 10^-10 joules (J)
This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of a tau. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (2.8467 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 2.8467 x 10^-10 s
or approximately 284.67 picoseconds to create the mass of a tau. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Neutrino
The rest mass of a neutrino is very small, and its value is not precisely known. However, it is known to be less than 2 eV/c², where eV is electron volts, a unit of energy, and c is the speed of light. Using the maximum value of the rest mass of a neutrino, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:
E = (2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 3.58 x 10^-10 joules (J)
This is the amount of energy required to create the maximum rest mass of a neutrino. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (3.58 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 3.58 x 10^-10 s
or approximately 358 picoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a neutrino. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Muon Neutrino
Similar to the calculation for the neutrino, we can use the maximum rest mass of a muon neutrino, which is approximately 0.2 eV/c². Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:
E = (0.2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.79 x 10^-11 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.79 x 10^-11 J) / (1 W) = 1.79 x 10^-11 s
or approximately 17.9 picoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a muon neutrino. Again, note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The tau Neutrino
The maximum rest mass of a tau neutrino is not precisely known, but it is estimated to be less than 18.2 eV/c². Using this maximum value, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:
E = (18.2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.63 x 10^-8 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.63 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 1.63 x 10^-8 s
or approximately 16.3 nanoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a tau neutrino. As with the previous calculations, note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The down quark
The mass of a down quark is approximately 4.7 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a down quark:
E = (4.7 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 4.22 x 10^-10 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (4.22 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 4.22 x 10^-10 s
or approximately 422 picoseconds to create a down quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The strange quark
The mass of a strange quark is approximately 95 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a strange quark:
E = (95 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.52 x 10^-9 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (8.52 x 10^-9 J) / (1 W) = 8.52 x 10^-9 s
or approximately 8.52 nanoseconds to create a strange quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Bottom quark
The mass of a bottom quark is approximately 4.18 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a bottom quark:
E = (4.18 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 3.76 x 10^-8 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (3.76 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 3.76 x 10^-8 s
or approximately 37.6 nanoseconds to create a bottom quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The up quark
The mass of an up quark is approximately 2.2 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create an up quark:
E = (2.2 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.98 x 10^-10 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.98 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 1.98 x 10^-10 s
or approximately 0.198 nanoseconds to create an up quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The charm quark
The mass of a charm quark is approximately 1.28 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a charm quark:
E = (1.28 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.15 x 10^-8 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.15 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 1.15 x 10^-8 s
or approximately 11.5 nanoseconds to create a charm quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Top quark
The mass of a top quark is approximately 173 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a top quark:
E = (173 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.55 x 10^-6 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.55 x 10^-6 J) / (1 W) = 1.55 x 10^-6 s
or approximately 1.55 microseconds to create a top quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The gluon
Gluons are massless particles, which means that they do not have a rest mass. Therefore, it is not possible to create a mass of a gluon by slowing down the speed of light or by any other means.
The mass-energy equivalence principle, expressed by the famous equation E=mc², applies only to particles that have a rest mass. Since gluons do not have a rest mass, they cannot be created from energy alone. Instead, gluons are produced as a result of the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together inside protons and neutrons.
The Z boson
The mass of a Z boson is approximately 91 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a Z boson:
E = (91 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.16 x 10^-14 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (8.16 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 8.16 x 10^-14 s
or approximately 0.816 femtoseconds to create a Z boson. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The W- Boson
The mass of a W boson is approximately 80.4 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a W boson:
E = (80.4 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 7.24 x 10^-14 J
If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:
E = P x t
where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:
t = E / P
For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (7.24 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 7.24 x 10^-14 s
or approximately 0.724 femtoseconds to create a W boson. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².
The Photon
Photons are massless particles, so they cannot be created by slowing down the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, photons always travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second.
However, photons can be converted into particles with mass, such as an electron-positron pair, through various processes such as pair production. In this process, a high-energy photon can interact with the electric field of a nucleus or an atomic electron and create a pair of particles with mass. The minimum energy required for this process is twice the rest mass energy of an electron, which is approximately 1.02 MeV (mega-electron volts).
To calculate the time required to create an electron-positron pair from a photon, we can use the equation:
t = E / P
Where E is the energy required to create the pair (i.e., 2 x 0.511 MeV = 1.022 MeV) and P is the power of the energy source. For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:
t = (1.022 MeV) / (1 J/s) = 1.62 x 10^-15 s
or approximately 1.62 femtoseconds. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as the energy of the photon is already taken into account.
In summary we have discussed what time is, in the two part series. What happens when we exceed the speed of light and as a result we begin travelling backward in time and we gave an observed example of all anti-particles as travelling backwards in time due to the fact that they are moving faster than the speed of light.
We have also shown that time is a fundamental part of the universe due to the fact that time is equivalent to the rate of flow of information and the basic form of information is energy, that since energy can neither be created nor destroyed ,as a result time can’t be created or destroyed.
The fact that time is equivalent to the rate of flow of information is also clearly seen in the importance the speed of light plays in our universe and since our minds are only able to get information at the speed of light, that places limitations on our understanding of quantum mechanics. Which contains dimensions where the speed of light flows at rates which are fractions of speed of light and time has extremely small values.
We have proved that photons aren’t formed by annihilation but by combination of two particles, an electron and a positron.
We have examined if we slowed the speed of light, what happens to mass of different particles. Light travels slower in different dimensions, it has even been achieved by scientists in our three dimensions. It's much difficult to create matter that way .
However when we examined the formation and stability of matter by slowing down time, we observed it's more likely that all particles are classified into groups of dimensions where time is the same and perhaps affects the rate of flow of energy and thus keeps them stable in those dimensions .
This implies that the rate of flow of time differs in different dimensions ,with the slowest rate known as Planck’s time 5.391247x10^-44 seconds .Particles that are stable in their dimensions where time has a certain value in relation to the speed of light become unstable when they move to other dimensions.
The rest I will leave to the reader to think about and perhaps add more or correct any errors.
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