what are the implications of the size of the heart beat of the universe,is it a mechanism through which gravity emerges, is it the reason for the cosmological constant or something else yet undiscovered?.what happens when the ratio of hydrogen to other elements in the universe changes.

Protons and neutrons are subatomic particles that make up the nucleus of an atom. While they do not typically "periodically vary in size," they do have a finite size and can undergo slight fluctuations in size.

The size of a proton or neutron is determined by its distribution of charge and mass. Both particles are composed of quarks and gluons, which are held together by the strong nuclear force. This force is extremely powerful, but it is also very short-range, which means that the size of a proton or neutron is relatively small.

However, the size of a proton or neutron can be influenced by its environment. For example, when protons and neutrons are bound together in a nucleus, they can be squeezed closer together, which can cause them to appear slightly smaller. Additionally, the energy of a proton or neutron can affect its size through the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that the position and momentum of a particle cannot be precisely determined at the same time.

But  even though the fluctuations in size of a proton are very small, they do exist due to quantum mechanical effects. The size of a proton in a hydrogen atom is not constant but rather undergoes small fluctuations due to the quantum mechanical uncertainty principle.

The size of the proton can be measured by scattering experiments, where a beam of particles is fired at the proton, and the scattering pattern is analyzed to determine the size of the proton. These experiments have shown that the root-mean-square (RMS) radius of the proton in a hydrogen atom is approximately 0.84 femtometers.

However, due to the uncertainty principle, the exact position and momentum of the proton cannot be simultaneously known. This means that the proton can fluctuate in size on very short timescales. The fluctuations in the size of the proton in a hydrogen atom are estimated to be on the order of a few tenths of a femtometer, which is extremely small but still significant in the context of atomic physics.

The fluctuation of the proton in a hydrogen atom can have an effect on the electron. This is because the electron is bound to the proton by the electromagnetic force, which is influenced by the distribution of charge in the proton.

The fluctuations in the size of the proton can cause small changes in the distribution of charge within the atom, which can affect the energy of the electron. These energy changes can lead to small shifts in the electron's orbit around the nucleus, resulting in changes in the spectrum of light emitted or absorbed by the atom.

This phenomenon is known as the Lamb shift, named after physicist Willis Lamb who first observed it in 1947. The Lamb shift is a small but measurable effect and provides a significant confirmation of the validity of quantum electrodynamics (QED), the theory that describes the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.

Therefore one can say even though the fluctuating proton may seem like a minor detail, it can have a measurable effect on the behavior of the electron in a hydrogen atom, and can even provide insights into the fundamental nature of matter and the forces .

Fluctuation of the proton in a hydrogen atom can be mathematically described using quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously known with absolute certainty due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This means that the proton's position can fluctuate over time, and the amplitude of these fluctuations can be calculated using quantum mechanical techniques.

One way to describe the fluctuations in the proton's position is to use the concept of a probability distribution, which describes the likelihood of finding the proton at a particular position. The probability distribution for the proton in a hydrogen atom is given by the wave function of the atom, which is a complex mathematical function that describes the behavior of the electron and proton in the atom.

The wave function for the hydrogen atom can be solved using the Schrödinger equation, which is a mathematical equation that describes the time evolution of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation takes into account the electromagnetic interaction between the electron and proton and allows us to calculate the probability distribution for the proton in the hydrogen atom at any given time.

Overall, the fluctuations in the position of the proton in a hydrogen atom can be mathematically described using the principles of quantum mechanics and the wave function of the atom. While the calculations involved can be complex, they provide a powerful tool for understanding the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic level.

It is difficult to give an exact number for how many protons exist in the universe, as it is an enormous and constantly changing number. However, we can make some rough estimates based on current scientific understanding.

The most common element in the universe is hydrogen, which consists of one proton and one electron. According to current estimates, about 90% of the visible matter in the universe is composed of hydrogen, and about 9% is composed of helium, which has two protons and two neutrons in its nucleus.

Using these estimates, we can calculate that there are approximately 10^80 protons in the observable universe, which is the part of the universe that we can currently observe with our telescopes. This is an enormous number, but it is important to keep in mind that the universe is vast and contains many regions that are beyond our current ability to observe.

Additionally, there may be other forms of matter in the universe that we have not yet detected, such as dark matter, which could contain a large number of protons. Therefore, the total number of protons in the universe is likely much larger than our current estimates.

The variation of the size of a proton due to quantum fluctuations is very small, on the order of tenths of a femtometer. In terms of percentage, this corresponds to a variation of less than 0.1% of the proton's size.

To be more precise, the root-mean-square (RMS) radius of a proton in a hydrogen atom is approximately 0.84 femtometers. The fluctuations in the proton's size due to quantum mechanics are estimated to be on the order of 0.05 femtometers. This corresponds to a variation of approximately 6% of the RMS radius of the proton.

While this variation may seem small, it is significant in the context of atomic physics, and can have measurable effects on the behavior of particles within an atom. For example, the Lamb shift, which is a small but measurable effect on the energy levels of an electron in a hydrogen atom, is due in part to the quantum fluctuations in the size of the proton

The root-mean-square (RMS) radius of a proton in a hydrogen atom is approximately 0.84 femtometers, which is equivalent to 8.4 x 10^-16 meters. The fluctuations in the proton's size due to quantum mechanics are estimated to be on the order of 0.05 femtometers, which is equivalent to 5 x 10^-19 meters.

Neutrons can also vary in size due to quantum fluctuations. Like protons, neutrons are subatomic particles and their behavior is governed by the principles of quantum mechanics. According to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously known with absolute certainty, which means that the size of a neutron can fluctuate over time.

The fluctuations in the size of a neutron are estimated to be similar to those of a proton, on the order of tenths of a femtometer. However, the precise amount of fluctuation can depend on various factors, such as the environment in which the neutron is located and the interactions it undergoes with other particles.

Overall, the quantum fluctuations in the size of both protons and neutrons are a fundamental aspect of their behavior and play an important role in many areas of physics, including atomic and nuclear physics.

It is not possible to give an exact number for the total number of neutrons in the universe, as it is an enormous and constantly changing number. However, we can make some rough estimates based on current scientific understanding.

Neutrons are a subatomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms, and their number is dependent on the specific elements and isotopes that exist in the universe. The most common element in the universe is hydrogen, which consists of one proton and no neutrons. However, heavier elements, such as carbon, oxygen, and iron, have many more neutrons in their nuclei.

According to current estimates, about 4% of the visible matter in the universe is composed of baryonic matter, which includes protons and neutrons. This means that there are a very large number of neutrons in the universe, but it is difficult to give an exact number

If we assume that every proton in the universe fluctuates by 5E-19 meters, and we use the estimated number of protons in the observable universe (1E80), we can calculate the total amount of fluctuation as follows:

Fluctuation in meters = 5E-19 meters/proton x 1E80 protons

Fluctuation in meters = 5E61 meters

This is an enormous number, and it highlights the fact that even though the individual fluctuations of each proton are very small, the total amount of fluctuation across the universe is extremely large. However, it's worth noting that this is a very rough estimate, and the actual amount of fluctuation could be different depending on a variety of factors.

The quantum fluctuations of subatomic particles, including protons and neutrons, have various important implications in physics, including cosmology and the behavior of matter at the smallest scales. 

In the context of cosmology, the quantum fluctuations in the early universe are believed to have played a key role in the formation of large-scale structures, such as galaxies and galaxy clusters. These fluctuations provided the initial seeds for the formation of these structures, as they led to variations in the density of matter in the universe. However, it hasn't been perhaps looked at from that point of view that the quantum fluctuations of individual particles, such as protons, has a direct effect on the large-scale expansion of the universe.

In terms of the Lamb shift, which is a small but measurable effect on the energy levels of an electron in a hydrogen atom, the quantum fluctuations of the proton are believed to contribute to this effect. However, it is hasn't been examined if  this effect has any significant impact on the overall behavior of gravity.

However, based on scientific research and understanding, the quantum fluctuations of subatomic particles are a well-established and fundamental aspect of physics. They have been observed in experiments and have been found to play important roles in many areas of physics, from the behavior of matter at the smallest scales to the large-scale structure of the universe

One possible philosophical interpretation is that the presence of quantum fluctuations highlights the inherently unpredictable and uncertain nature of the universe at the smallest scales. Even though the fluctuations themselves are very small, they may have cascading effects that ultimately shape the behavior of matter and energy on larger scales. This suggests that the universe may be more complex and unpredictable than we can ever fully understand, and that there may be inherent limits to our ability to predict and control the behavior of matter and energy.

Another possible implication is that the fluctuations themselves may be a fundamental aspect of the universe, and that they are necessary for the existence of matter and energy in the first place. This suggests that the universe may be a self-organizing system, with even the smallest fluctuations playing a critical role in the formation and evolution of the cosmos.

Images of gravity

Relationship between G and speed of light.

Mathematical Proof that real numbers are Finite.

Proof that all numbers between 0 to 1 as fractions as 0.1, 0.2, 0.3........The total of real positive numbers to infinity are the same as counting 1,2,3,4...... The only difference is that 0.X on the line between 0 to 1 line  is actually equal to the number X on the real number line.Thus since all finally end with 1 ,the total of real positive numbers isn't infinite as we thought but finite.

What we are describing is known as the one-to-one correspondence between the interval [0,1] and the set of all real numbers.

To prove that the two sets have the same cardinality (i.e., the same number of elements), we need to show that there exists a bijective function between them. In other words, we need to find a function that maps each element of the interval [0,1] to a unique element of the set of all real numbers, and vice versa.One such function is the following:

f(x) = x/(1-x)

This function maps every number x in the interval [0,1) to a unique number f(x) in the set of all real numbers, and it maps 1 to infinity.

To prove that f(x) is bijective, you need to show that it is both injective (i.e., each element in the domain maps to a unique element in the codomain) and surjective (i.e., every element in the codomain is mapped to by at least one element in the domain).

Injectivity: Suppose f(x1) = f(x2) for some x1, x2 in the domain of f. Then we have x1/(1-x1) = x2/(1-x2). Cross-multiplying and simplifying, we get x1 = x2. Therefore, f is injective.

Surjectivity: Let y be any real number. If y is positive, then y = x/(1-x) for some x in the interval [0,1). Solving for x, we get x = y/(y+1), which is in the domain of f. If y is negative, then we can choose x = y/(1-y), which is also in the domain of f and maps to y. Finally, if y = 0, we have f(0) = 0. Therefore, f is surjective.

Since f is both injective and surjective, it is bijective, and we have shown that the interval [0,1] and the set of all real numbers have the same cardinality.

In summary since all number fractions between 0----1 finally end at number 1and the left side of the equation is equal to the right which represents the real numbers.it proves that all positive real numbers are finite and not infinite.

Image of numbers 

Now I have several proofs that I don't know which is right and which is wrong . 🤔 🤔

Proof two question;

So it's not possible to prove a mathematical relationship between all the possible fractions between 0 and 1on a number line and map them onto all the real numbers btn 0 and infinity on a real numbers line .

Answer.

Actually, it is possible to prove that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all fractions between 0 and 1 and the set of all real numbers between 0 and infinity. In fact, this result is known as Cantor's diagonal argument, which is a proof technique used in set theory.

The proof works by assuming that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the two sets and then constructing a mapping that contradicts this assumption. Here is a brief sketch of the proof:

Assume that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the set of all fractions between 0 and 1 and the set of all real numbers between 0 and infinity. Then there must be some real numbers between 0 and infinity that do not have a corresponding fraction between 0 and 1.

Let's represent each fraction between 0 and 1 as an infinite sequence of digits after the decimal point. For example, 1/3 is represented as 0.3333..., 1/7 is represented as 0.142857142857..., and so on.

Now, we construct a new number by taking the first digit after the decimal point of the first fraction, the second digit after the decimal point of the second fraction, the third digit after the decimal point of the third fraction, and so on. We then add 1 to each digit (mod 10), so that we get a new sequence of digits.

For example, suppose we have the following fractions:

1/3 = 0.3333...

1/7 = 0.142857142857...

1/9 = 0.1111...

1/11 = 0.090909...

...

We then construct a new number by taking the first digit after the decimal point of the first fraction (3), the second digit after the decimal point of the second fraction (4), the third digit after the decimal point of the third fraction (1), the fourth digit after the decimal point of the fourth fraction (0), and so on. Adding 1 (mod 10) to each digit, we get:

4 5 2 1 0 ...

Now, we claim that this number does not correspond to any fraction between 0 and 1. To see why, suppose that it does correspond to some fraction, say 0.a1a2a3..., where each ai is a digit between 0 and 9. Then, we can construct a new number by taking the first digit after the decimal point of the first fraction (which is different from a1), the second digit after the decimal point of the second fraction (which is different from a2), the third digit after the decimal point of the third fraction (which is different from a3), and so on. Adding 1 (mod 10) to each digit, we get a new sequence of digits that is different from the original number we constructed. Therefore, the original number cannot correspond to any fraction between 0 and 1.

This contradicts our assumption that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the set of all fractions between 0 and 1 and the set of all real numbers between 0 and infinity. Therefore, there must be a one-to-one correspondence between the two sets.

Virtual Particles what are they ,Can our universe exist without them and is it just possible that they have much deeper similarities with real particles .

 

What are Virtual Particles?.

A virtual particle is a theoretical transient particle that exhibits some of the characteristics of an ordinary particle, while having its existence limited by the uncertainty principle. The concept of virtual particles arises in the perturbation theory of quantum field theory where interactions between ordinary particles are described in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. A process involving virtual particles can be described by a schematic representation known as a Feynman diagram, in which virtual particles are represented by internal lines.

Virtual particles do not necessarily carry the same mass as the corresponding real particle, although they always conserve energy and momentum. The closer its characteristics come to those of ordinary particles, the longer the virtual particle exists. They are important in the physics of many processes, including particle scattering and Casimir forces. In quantum field theory, forces—such as the electromagnetic repulsion or attraction between two charges—can be thought of as due to the exchange of virtual photons between the charges. Virtual photons are the exchange particle for the electromagnetic interaction.

The term is somewhat loose and vaguely defined, in that it refers to the view that the world is made up of "real particles". "Real particles" are better understood to be excitations of the underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also excitations of the underlying fields, but are "temporary" in the sense that they appear in calculations of interactions, but never as asymptotic states or indices to the matrix. Thats until perhaps you look at more closely at some of the particles and their behavior examples include neutrinos and the varying mass of protons . The accuracy and use of virtual particles in calculations is firmly established, but as they cannot be detected in experiments, deciding how to precisely describe them is a topic of debate.Although widely used, they are by no means a necessary feature of QFT, but rather are mathematical conveniences - as demonstrated by lattice field theory, which avoids using the concept altogether.

Properties of virtual particles

A virtual particle does not precisely obey the energy–momentum relation m²c⁴ = E² − p²c². Its kinetic energy may not have the usual relationship to velocity. It can be negative  This is expressed by the phrase off mass shell. The probability amplitude for a virtual particle to exist tends to be canceled out by destructive interference over longer distances and times. As a consequence, a real photon is massless and thus has only two polarization states, whereas a virtual one, being effectively massive, has three polarization states. Something that is in a way similar to what a neutrino would exhibit

Quantum tunnelling may be considered a manifestation of virtual particle exchanges. The range of forces carried by virtual particles is limited by the uncertainty principle, which regards energy and time as conjugate variables; thus, virtual particles of larger mass have more limited range.

Written in the usual mathematical notations, in the equations of physics, there is no mark of the distinction between virtual and actual particles. The amplitudes of processes with a virtual particle interfere with the amplitudes of processes without it, whereas for an actual particle the cases of existence and non-existence cease to be coherent with each other and do not interfere any more. In the quantum field theory view, actual particles are viewed as being detectable excitations of underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also viewed as excitations of the underlying fields, but appear only as forces, not as detectable particles. They are "temporary" in the sense that they appear in some calculations, but are not detected as single particles. Thus, in mathematical terms, they never appear as indices to the scattering matrix, which is to say, they never appear as the observable inputs and outputs of the physical process being modelled.

There are two principal ways in which the notion of virtual particles appears in modern physics. They appear as intermediate terms in Feynman diagrams; that is, as terms in a perturbative calculation. They also appear as an infinite set of states to be summed or integrated over in the calculation of a semi-non-perturbative effect. In the latter case, it is sometimes said that virtual particles contribute to a mechanism that mediates the effect, or that the effect occurs through the virtual particles.

Virtual Particles and their role in the real universe: 

There are many observable physical phenomena that arise in interactions involving virtual particles. For bosonic particles that exhibit rest mass when they are free and actual, virtual interactions are characterized by the relatively short range of the force interaction produced by particle exchange. Confinement can lead to a short range, too. Examples of such short-range interactions are the strong and weak forces, and their associated field bosons.

For the gravitational and electromagnetic forces, the zero rest-mass of the associated boson particle permits long-range forces to be mediated by virtual particles. However, in the case of photons, power and information transfer by virtual particles is a relatively short-range phenomenon (existing only within a few wavelengths of the field-disturbance, which carries information or transferred power), as for example seen in the characteristically short range of inductive and capacitative effects in the near field zone of coils and antennas.

some field interactions which may be seen in terms of virtual particles are:

• The Coulomb force (static electric force) between electric charges. It is caused by the exchange of virtual photons. In symmetric 3-dimensional space this exchange results in the inverse square law for electric force. Since the photon has no mass, the coulomb potential has an infinite range.
• The magnetic field between magnetic dipoles. It is caused by the exchange of virtual photons. In symmetric 3-dimensional space, this exchange results in the inverse cube law for magnetic force. Since the photon has no mass, the magnetic potential has an infinite range.
• Electromagnetic induction. This phenomenon transfers energy to and from a magnetic coil via a changing electro magnetic field.
• The strong nuclear force between quarks is the result of interaction of virtual gluons. The residual of this force outside of quark triplets (neutron and proton) holds neutrons and protons together in nuclei, and is due to virtual mesons such as the pi meson and rho meson.
• The weak nuclear force is the result of exchange by virtual W and Z bosons.
• The spontaneous emission of a photon during the decay of an excited atom or excited nucleus; such a decay is prohibited by ordinary quantum mechanics and requires the quantization of the electromagnetic field for its explanation.
• The Casimir effect, where the ground state of the quantized electromagnetic field causes attraction between a pair of electrically neutral metal plates.
• The van der Waals force, which is partly due to the Casimir effect between two atoms.
• Vacuum polarization, which involves pair production or the decay of the vacuum, which is the spontaneous production of particle-antiparticle pairs (such as electron-positron).
• Lamb shift of positions of atomic levels.
• The Impedance of free space, which defines the ratio between the electric field strength |E| and the magnetic field strength |H |: Z₀ = | E|⁄|H|.^[8]
• Much of the so-called near-field of radio antennas, where the magnetic and electric effects of the changing current in the antenna wire and the charge effects of the wire's capacitive charge may be (and usually are) important contributors to the total EM field close to the source, but both of which effects are dipole effects that decay with increasing distance from the antenna much more quickly than do the influence of "conventional" electromagnetic waves that are "far" from the source^[.]These far-field waves, for which E is (in the limit of long distance) equal to cB, are composed of actual photons. Actual and virtual photons are mixed near an antenna, with the virtual photons responsible only for the "extra" magnetic-inductive and transient electric-dipole effects, which cause any imbalance between E and cB. As distance from the antenna grows, the near-field effects (as dipole fields) die out more quickly, and only the "radiative" effects that are due to actual photons remain as important effects. Although virtual effects extend to infinity, they drop off in field strength as 1⁄r² rather than the field of EM waves composed of actual photons, which drop 1⁄r

Most of these have analogous effects in solid-state physics; indeed, one can often gain a better intuitive understanding by examining these cases. In semiconductors, the roles of electrons, positrons and photons in field theory are replaced by electrons in the conduction band, holes in the valence band, and phonons or vibrations of the crystal lattice. A virtual particle is in a virtual state where the probability amplitude is not conserved. Examples of macroscopic virtual phonons, photons, and electrons in the case of the tunneling process were presented by Günter Nimtz and Alfons A. Stahlhofen

Feymann Diagrams

The calculation of scattering amplitudes in theoretical particle physics requires the use of some rather large and complicated integrals over a large number of variables. These integrals do, however, have a regular structure, and may be represented as Feynman diagrams. The appeal of the Feynman diagrams is strong, as it allows for a simple visual presentation of what would otherwise be a rather arcane and abstract formula. In particular, part of the appeal is that the outgoing legs of a Feynman diagram can be associated with actual, on-shell particles. Thus, it is natural to associate the other lines in the diagram with particles as well, called the "virtual particles". In mathematical terms, they correspond to the propagators appearing in the diagram.

In the adjacent image below, the solid lines correspond to actual particles (of momentum p₁ and so on), while the dotted line corresponds to a virtual particle carrying momentum k. For example, if the solid lines were to correspond to electrons interacting by means of the electromagnetic interaction, the dotted line would correspond to the exchange of a virtual photon. In the case of interacting nucleons, the dotted line would be a virtual pion. In the case of quarks interacting by means of the strong force, the dotted line would be a virtual gluon, and so on.

One-loop diagram with fermion propagator

Virtual particles may be mesons or vector bosons, as in the example above; they may also be fermions. However, in order to preserve quantum numbers, most simple diagrams involving fermion exchange are prohibited. The image to the right shows an allowed diagram, a one-loop diagram. The solid lines correspond to a fermion propagator, the wavy lines to bosons.

Pair Production:

Virtual particles are often popularly described as coming in pairs, a particle and antiparticle which can be of any kind. These pairs exist for an extremely short time, and then mutually annihilate, or in some cases, the pair may be boosted apart using external energy so that they avoid annihilation and become actual particles, as described below. The implication of a mirror universe in close interaction with our universe is tempting at this point to think about .

This may occur in one of two ways.

 In an accelerating frame of reference, the virtual particles may appear to be actual to the accelerating observer; this is known as the Unruh effect. In short, the vacuum of a stationary frame appears, to the accelerated observer, to be a warm gas of actual particles in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Another example is pair production in very strong electric fields, sometimes called vacuum decay. If, for example, a pair of atomic nuclei are merged to very briefly form a nucleus with a charge greater than about 140, (that is, larger than about the inverse of the fine-structure constant, which is a dimensionless quantity), the strength of the electric field will be such that it will be energetically favorable to create positron–electron pairs out of the vacuum or Dirac sea, with the electron attracted to the positron to annihilate the positive charge. This pair-creation amplitude was first calculated by Julian Schwinger in 1951.

Mathematically:

The mathematical equations that describe virtual particles are part of the mathematical framework of quantum field theory. In this framework, the behavior of particles and fields is described by a set of equations known as the "Lagrangian," which is a mathematical function that specifies how the particles and fields interact with one another.

The equations that describe virtual particles are derived from the Lagrangian using a mathematical technique called "perturbation theory." Perturbation theory is a method of approximating the behavior of a complex system by breaking it down into simpler parts and then analyzing the effects of small perturbations.

In quantum field theory, the formation of an electron as a virtual particle can be described by a process known as electron-positron annihilation. This process involves the collision of a particle and its corresponding antiparticle, resulting in the conversion of their mass into energy and the creation of a pair of virtual particles that quickly annihilate each other.

The mathematical equation that describes the annihilation of an electron and a positron and the creation of a pair of virtual particles is:

e- + e+ → γ* → e- + e+

In this equation, "e-" represents an electron, "e+" represents a positron, and "γ*" represents a virtual photon. The arrow indicates the direction of the reaction, and the double arrow indicates that the photon is a virtual particle that is created and destroyed during the reaction.

The formation of a positron as a virtual particle can be described by the inverse process of electron-positron annihilation. In this case, a pair of virtual particles are created, which then interact to form a positron and an electron.

The mathematical equation that describes the creation of a positron as a virtual particle is:

γ* → e- + e+ → e+

In this equation, "γ*" represents a virtual photon that is created from the interaction of two particles, and "e-" and "e+" represent an electron and a positron, respectively. The arrow indicates the direction of the reaction, and the double arrow indicates that the photon is a virtual particle that is created and destroyed during the reaction.

The main difference between real particles and virtual particles is that real particles are particles that can be directly observed or detected, while virtual particles are not directly observable or detectable in the same way.

Real particles are particles that have a well-defined mass, charge, and spin, and they can be detected through their interactions with other particles or through their effects on detectors. Examples of real particles include electrons, protons, and photons.

Virtual particles, on the other hand, are particles that exist only as disturbances in the underlying fields of quantum mechanics. They do not have a well-defined mass, charge, or spin, and they cannot be directly detected or observed. Instead, their existence is inferred from the effects they have on other particles and fields. Virtual particles can arise due to the fluctuations in the underlying fields or due to the interactions between particles and fields.

Another key difference between real particles and virtual particles is that real particles are stable and can exist indefinitely, while virtual particles are typically unstable and exist only for very short periods of time before they decay or annihilate with other particles. This is because virtual particles are not bound by the usual conservation laws that apply to real particles.

Despite these differences, real particles and virtual particles are both important components of the quantum mechanical description of the behavior of subatomic particles, and both play a crucial role in determining the properties and behavior of matter and energy in the universe.

Real particles, such as real electrons and real positrons, differ from virtual particles in that they are stable and have well-defined properties such as mass, charge, and spin. Real particles can exist independently and can be detected through their interactions with other particles or their effects on detectors. In contrast, virtual particles are not stable and have uncertain properties, and their existence is inferred from the effects they have on other particles and fields.

While it is true that all particles, including real particles, are subject to energy fluctuations in the quantum vacuum, this does not mean that real particles "borrow" energy for their existence. Instead, the energy fluctuations in the vacuum affect all particles equally, and they do not have a net effect on the properties or stability of real particles.

In the case of the nucleus, the behavior of particles is described by the strong force, which is mediated by gluons rather than photons. While gluons can exchange energy between particles, this does not involve borrowing or lending energy, but rather the transfer of energy through the exchange of particles.

In summary, while real particles and virtual particles may both be subject to energy fluctuations in the quantum vacuum, real particles differ from virtual particles in that they are stable and have well-defined properties. The behavior of particles in complex environments, such as the nucleus, is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics and the interactions between particles and fields, but this does not involve borrowing or lending energy for the existence of real particles.

It is true that particles such as electrons, positrons, muons, and neutrinos can exist as part of more complex structures, such as atoms and molecules. In these cases, the energy of the individual particles is conserved as part of the larger system. However, it is important to note that the individual particles themselves still have well-defined properties, including mass, charge, and spin, and their energy is still conserved in interactions with other particles.

Additionally, even when particles are part of a larger system, the energy conservation still applies to each individual particle, as well as to the system as a whole. This is because energy conservation is a fundamental law of nature that applies at all scales, from individual particles to entire galaxies.

In summary, while particles can exist as part of more complex structures, their individual properties and energy conservation still apply, both within the larger system and in interactions with other particles.

Here are the mathematical equations describing an electron, a positron, and a muon, respectively:

Electron: The Dirac equation describes the behavior of a free electron in relativistic quantum mechanics:

(iγ^μ∂_μ - m)ψ = 0

where ψ is the electron wave function, γ^μ are the Dirac gamma matrices, ∂_μ is the partial derivative with respect to the four spacetime coordinates, and m is the mass of the electron.

Positron: The behavior of a real positron can be described by the Dirac equation as well, but with a positive sign in front of the mass term:

(iγ^μ∂_μ + m)ψ = 0

where ψ is the positron wave function, γ^μ are the Dirac gamma matrices, ∂_μ is the partial derivative with respect to the four spacetime coordinates, and m is the mass of the positron.

Muon: The behavior of a muon can be described by a similar equation, called the Dirac-Pauli equation, which takes into account the muon's spin:

(iγ^μ(D_μ - ieA_μ) - m)ψ = 0

where ψ is the muon wave function, γ^μ are the Dirac gamma matrices, D_μ is the covariant derivative, A_μ is the electromagnetic potential, e is the elementary charge, and m is the mass of the muon.

Particles in quantum mechanics are often described by wavefunctions that exhibit wave-like properties, such as interference and diffraction, as well as particle-like properties, such as definite positions and momenta when measured. This is known as wave-particle duality, and it arises due to the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, where the wavefunction gives the probability amplitude of finding the particle at a particular location or with a particular momentum.

It is important to note that the wave-like behavior of particles is not just a phenomenon that arises due to the interaction with an observer or measurement apparatus, but is an inherent property of the particle itself. This is supported by a wide range of experimental evidence, including interference experiments with electrons and other particles.

if particles  existed due to the fact that real particles as well as virtual particle were borrowing energy and paying it back via photons and gluons and w and z bosons resulting in the wave particle duality we would then describe  them mathematically as follows for real particles.

The wave-particle duality of particles can be mathematically described by their wavefunctions, which obey the Schrödinger equation or the Dirac equation, depending on whether the particle is non-relativistic or relativistic, respectively. These equations describe how the wavefunction of a particle evolves over time, and how it interacts with other particles and fields.

For example, the Schrödinger equation for a non-relativistic particle of mass m in a potential V(x) is given by:

iℏ ∂ψ/∂t = (-ℏ^2/2m) ∇^2ψ + V(x)ψ

where ψ(x,t) is the wavefunction of the particle at position x and time t, ∇^2 is the Laplacian operator, and ℏ is the reduced Planck constant. This equation describes how the wavefunction of the particle evolves over time, and how it interacts with the potential V(x).

Similarly, the Dirac equation for a relativistic particle, such as an electron or a positron, is given by:

(iγ^μ∂_μ - m)ψ = 0

where γ^μ are the Dirac gamma matrices, ∂_μ is the partial derivative with respect to the four spacetime coordinates, and m is the mass of the particle. This equation describes the behavior of the particle's wavefunction in a relativistic framework, and how it interacts with other particles and fields.

In both cases, the wave function describes the probability amplitude of finding the particle at a particular location or with a particular momentum, and the wave-particle duality arises due to the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.

The borrowing of energy via photons, gluons, and other bosons is a feature of the quantum vacuum and the fundamental interactions between particles, which can be described by the laws of quantum field theory.

But when we consider unruh effect the possibility that virtual particles are actually real particles in a mirror universe comes to mind this is especially a tight fit for a massless photon with two polarizations states and becomes a neutrino with mass and three polarization states ,But perhaps the reader might see other implications or possibilities and is free to comment below

                                                                     Image of Neutrino and fine structure below

General Relativity, lamb shift ,the space-time continuum and how do we extend General relativity that applies to the very big to the very small .

 

Einstein's theory of relativity did not merge the time dimension with space. Instead, it introduced the concept of space-time, which combines the three dimensions of space with the dimension of time into a single four-dimensional continuum.

According to the theory of relativity, space and time are not separate and independent entities, but rather are intimately connected and interdependent. This means that measurements of distance and time intervals depend on the observer's relative motion, and that the speed of light is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion.

Einstein's theory of relativity has been well-supported by experimental evidence, and it is a cornerstone of modern physics. However linking space to time while it was a great idea could in some ways mean that all space is in some way linked to time after all we even have Planck’s time at the smallest of scale and the Planck’s length also exists within that very space .

Einstein field equation, which relates the curvature of space-time to the distribution of matter and energy:

Gμν = 8πTμν / c^4

In this equation, Gμν is the Einstein tensor, which encodes the curvature of space-time, and Tμν is the stress-energy tensor, which describes the distribution of matter and energy. c is the speed of light in vacuum, and π is the mathematical constant pi.

The Einstein field equation is a fundamental equation of general relativity, which is the theory of gravity developed by Einstein. It explains how gravity arises from the curvature of space-time, and how this curvature is influenced by the distribution of matter and energy. The equation has been extremely successful in predicting a wide range of gravitational phenomena, from the bending of light by massive objects to the behavior of black holes and the evolution of the universe as a whole.

In the theory of relativity, space and time are intimately connected and cannot be treated as separate and independent entities. This means that any change in space will also affect time, and vice versa.

One of the key ideas in relativity is that the geometry of space-time is influenced by the distribution of matter and energy. This means that the curvature of space-time can be altered by the presence of massive objects, such as stars or planets. As a result, the way that time is measured can also be affected in the presence of such objects.

For example, according to the theory of relativity, time runs slower in a strong gravitational field than in a weak gravitational field. This means that if an observer is located near a massive object, such as a black hole, time will appear to pass more slowly for them than for an observer located far away from the object.

Similarly, the theory of relativity predicts that time can be affected by motion. Specifically, time will appear to run slower for an object in motion relative to an observer who is at rest. This effect, known as time dilation, has been observed in many experiments, including those involving high-speed particles in accelerators.

When space becomes highly curved due to the presence of massive objects or strong gravitational fields, the behavior of time can be significantly affected. Specifically, time will appear to run slower in regions of strong curvature compared to regions of weak curvature. This effect, known as gravitational time dilation, is a prediction of the theory of relativity and has been observed in many experiments.

The mathematical equation that describes this effect is given by the formula:

Δt' = Δt * √(1 - (2GM)/(rc^2))

where Δt is the time interval measured by an observer located at a distance r from a massive object of mass M, and Δt' is the time interval measured by an observer located at infinity (i.e., far away from the object). G is the gravitational constant, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and the term (2GM)/(rc^2) represents the gravitational potential at a distance r from the object.

The equation shows that as the gravitational potential becomes larger (i.e., as the object becomes more massive or as the distance r becomes smaller), the value of Δt' becomes smaller than Δt. This means that time runs slower in regions of strong curvature compared to regions of weak curvature. This effect has been observed in many experiments, including those involving high-precision atomic clocks placed in different gravitational fields.

It's worth noting that the formula above applies specifically to the case of a spherically symmetric object, and that the gravitational time dilation effect can be more complicated for other geometries. However, the general principle that time runs slower in regions of strong curvature remains true regardless of the geometry.

In an atom, the curvature of space-time is not significant enough to require the use of general relativity and the Einstein field equation, but this also depends on the size of the observer for if the observer was as small as a quark one wonders if he would still perceive the objects with the nucleus in the same way as we do . Instead, the behavior of atoms is described by quantum mechanics, which is a different branch of physics that deals with the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic scale.

In quantum mechanics, the behavior of particles is described by wave functions, which are mathematical functions that describe the probability of finding a particle in a particular state. The behavior of atoms and their constituent particles, such as electrons and protons, is described by the Schrödinger equation, which is the fundamental equation of quantum mechanics.

The Schrödinger equation takes into account the interactions between particles, as well as the electromagnetic forces that hold the atom together. It does not directly incorporate the curvature of spacetime or the effects of gravity, which are typically negligible at the scale of atoms to us in our three dimensions .

The curvature of space-time near an atomic nucleus is determined by the distribution of mass and charge within the nucleus. However, the scale of this curvature is much smaller than the scale at which general relativity becomes necessary. Therefore, the effects of curvature on the behavior of particles within an atom can be described by quantum mechanics, which does not directly incorporate the effects of gravity. it is worth noting that some theories attempt to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single, comprehensive theory of physics. These theories, such as string theory and loop quantum gravity, predict that space-time is fundamentally quantized at small scales, and that quantum mechanical effects could be relevant in the description of space-time itself.

Quantum mechanics does not describe the curvature of space-time in the nucleus directly, but it does describe the behavior of particles within the nucleus, which is affected by the curvature of space-time. The curvature of space-time is determined by the distribution of mass and energy in the nucleus, which affects the behavior of particles within it.

In quantum mechanics, the behavior of particles within the nucleus is described by the Schrödinger equation or other quantum mechanical equations, which take into account the interactions between particles and the electromagnetic forces that hold the nucleus together. These equations do not directly incorporate the effects of curvature or gravity, but they do take into account the properties of particles, such as their energy, momentum, and spin, which can be affected by the curvature of space-time.

For example, the energy levels of electrons in an atom are affected by the curvature of space-time due to the presence of the atomic nucleus. This effect is known as the Lamb shift, and it has been experimentally observed and accurately predicted by quantum electrodynamics, which is the quantum mechanical theory of the electromagnetic force.

The Lamb shift arises from the interactions between the electron and the electromagnetic field, which are affected by the curvature of space-time near the nucleus.

While quantum mechanics does not directly describe the curvature of space-time in the nucleus, it does take into account the properties of particles that can be affected by the curvature in our three dimensions, such as their energy levels and interactions with the electromagnetic field. The effects of curvature at these small scales are typically much weaker than those described by general relativity of course due to difference in dimensions perhaps, and quantum mechanics remains the dominant theory for describing the behavior of particles within the nucleus. However at this point one begins to ask what a summation of the total curvature of all the subatomic particles could create if all the atoms of a planet or star where taken into account and if it would actually relate to the the total curvature in space of that planet or object.

To study the curvature of space-time and the rates of time flow in an atom around different particles, you would need to use the tools of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, which are the theories that describe the behavior of particles at the atomic and subatomic scale.

One way to study the differences in space-time curvature and time rates around different particles in an atom is to perform precision measurements of their energy levels and interactions with electromagnetic fields. These measurements can be compared to theoretical predictions based on quantum mechanical models of the atom, which take into account the effects of curvature and time dilation due to the presence of the atomic nucleus.

For example, the Lamb shift in the energy levels of electrons in hydrogen and helium atoms provides a way to measure the effects of the curvature of space-time and time dilation near the atomic nucleus. This effect arises from the interactions between the electrons and the electromagnetic field, which are affected by the curvature of space-time due to the presence of the atomic nucleus. At this point my mind is tempted to describe this mechanism as the actual mechanism by which gravity is created ! as opposed to just describing it as “mass or energy tells space how to curve ,while space tells mass or energy how to move “.The reason is a deeper understanding of gravity makes discovering anti-gravitational propulsion quite easier to imagine and perhaps develop.

 Lamb shift can also be described as a small energy difference between two energy levels in the hydrogen atom that arises from quantum electrodynamics (QED) effects. It is caused by the interaction of the electron with the vacuum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field. The energy difference is proportional to the fine structure constant, which is a dimensionless constant that characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction.

The Lamb shift can be described by a number of equations in QED, but one of the simplest is:

ΔE = (α^5 m_e c^2)/(32 π^2 n^3)

where ΔE is the Lamb shift energy difference, α is the fine structure constant, m_e is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light, and n is the principal quantum number of the energy levels being considered. 

There is a relationship between the Lamb shift and relativity. The Lamb shift is a relativistic correction to the energy levels of the hydrogen atom, and it arises from the interaction of the electron with the quantum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field.

In the non-relativistic theory of the hydrogen atom, the energy levels are determined by the Coulomb interaction between the electron and the proton. However, when relativistic effects are taken into account, the energy levels are modified by additional terms that arise from the electron's motion at high speeds and from its interaction with the electromagnetic field.

The calculation of the Lamb shift involves both quantum mechanics and special relativity. In fact, the Lamb shift was one of the earliest successes of quantum electrodynamics (QED), which is the relativistic quantum field theory of the electromagnetic interaction.

Therefore, the Lamb shift is an important example of the interplay between quantum mechanics and relativity, and it provides a way to test the predictions of QED to a high degree of precision.The curvature of space around a planet of mass M can be calculated using Einstein's field equation for general relativity:

Rμν - (1/2)Rgμν = (8πG/c^4) Tμν

where Rμν is the Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar curvature, gμν is the metric tensor, G is the gravitational constant, c is the speed of light, and Tμν is the stress-energy tensor.

If we assume that the planet can be approximated as a spherically symmetric mass distribution, then the metric tensor can be written as:

ds^2 = -f(r)dt^2 + (1/f(r))dr^2 + r^2(dθ^2 + sin^2(θ)dϕ^2)

where f(r) = 1 - 2GM/(rc^2) is the Schwarzschild metric for a spherically symmetric mass distribution, and G is the gravitational constant.

The curvature of space caused by a hydrogen atom with mass N can also be calculated using the same equation, with Tμν replaced by the stress-energy tensor for the hydrogen atom.

Assuming that the hydrogen atom is at rest with respect to the planet, we can write the stress-energy tensor as:

Tμν = ρ c^2 δ^3(x)

where ρ is the rest mass density of the hydrogen atom, and δ^3(x) is the Dirac delta function.

Using these equations, we can calculate the curvature of space around the planet and the hydrogen atom, and then compare the Lamb shift for hydrogen with and without the presence of the planet. However, this calculation is very complicated and involves solving the Einstein field equations for a spherically symmetric mass distribution, which is beyond the scope of a simple mathematical relationship

If the hydrogen electron is in an area that isn't influenced by any curvature of the planet, then the Lamb shift for hydrogen would not be affected by the planet's presence. This is because the Lamb shift is primarily caused by the electron's interaction with the virtual particles that make up the quantum vacuum, rather than by the curvature of spacetime.

However, it's worth noting that in reality, it's very difficult to isolate an electron from all external influences, including the curvature of spacetime caused by nearby massive objects. Even small variations in the gravitational field can affect the Lamb shift, although these effects are typically very small and difficult to measure.

To perform such measurements, sophisticated experimental techniques such as laser spectroscopy, ion trapping, and atomic clocks are used. These techniques require a deep understanding of quantum mechanics and advanced experimental skills, and they are typically carried out in specialized laboratories and research facilities.

The lamb shift of a hydrogen atom is a very small effect that arises from the interaction of the atom's electrons with the gravitational field of the nucleus. The effect is proportional to the mass of the nucleus and the strength of the gravitational field at the position of the electron.The curvature created by a hydrogen atom of mass m with a Lamb shift L can be described by the equation:

R = 2GM/(c^2 * R_H) * L

where G is the gravitational constant, c is the speed of light, and R_H is the radius of the hydrogen atom.

To compare this to the curvature created by a planet of mass M with a Lamb shift L, we can use the  equation:

R = 3GM/(c^2 * r^3)

where r is the distance from the center of the planet.

Equating these two expressions for R and solving for M, we get:

M = (3/2) * (r/R_H)^3 * m * L

This equation relates the mass M of a planet to the mass m of a hydrogen atom, the Lamb shift L, and the ratio of the distance r from the center of the planet to the radius R_H of the hydrogen atom.

Note that this equation assumes that the hydrogen atom and the planet are both point masses and that the distance r is much greater than R_H. In reality, the distribution of mass within the hydrogen atom and the planet would affect the curvature of spacetime differently, so this equation is only an approximation.

The magnitude of the lamb shift for a hydrogen atom in its ground state (i.e., with the electron in the lowest energy level) has been calculated to be about 42 parts per billion, which means that the shift is only about 0.0000042% of the original wavelength of the light emitted by the atom. This effect is very small and difficult to measure directly in the laboratory, but it has been observed indirectly in astrophysical observations of hydrogen emission lines from stars and galaxies with strong gravitational fields

Perhaps in the event there is some mathematical relationship of the total curvature caused by a planet in relation to the ratio total number of the planets mass as expressed to mass of hydrogen atom the two curvature still should agree to a degree.

It's worth noting that this equation is a simplified version of the full equation for the curvature of space-time and should be used with caution in making quantitative predictions or comparisons.

There is no mathematical proof that general relativity is prohibited at small scales or in the nucleus of an atom. In fact, general relativity has been successfully tested in a wide range of scales, from the solar system to the cosmological scale.

However, at extremely small scales, such as the scale of individual particles within an atom, the effects of gravity become negligible and the behavior of particles is governed by the principles of quantum mechanics. In this regime, the curvature of space-time due to the presence of massive objects is not as important as other quantum effects, such as the uncertainty principle and the wave-like behavior of particles.

While there is no mathematical proof that general relativity is prohibited at small scales, the mathematical framework of general relativity is not sufficient to describe the behavior of particles at the quantum level. To describe the behavior of particles at small scales, quantum mechanics is necessary. Therefore, the behavior of particles at small scales is described by the principles of quantum mechanics, which can lead to different effects compared to classical mechanics or general relativity. The interplay between quantum mechanics and general relativity is an active area of research in theoretical physics, and the development of a comprehensive theory that can incorporate both quantum mechanics and general relativity is a major challenge in the field.

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what is Time 

Why it seems time and the speed of light varies in different dimensions resulting in to different phenomenon. Part II

In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles (for example, a proton, neutron, or meson), or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other particles (for example, an electron, photon, or muon). Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact.

Experiments show that light could behave like a stream of particles (called photons) as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led to the concept of wave–particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale particles behave like both particles and waves.

Another concept, the uncertainty principle, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous position and momentum, cannot be measured exactly. The wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to more massive particles as well.

Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field theory.

Compositions of subatomic particles.

Subatomic particles are either "elementary", i.e. not made of multiple other particles, or "composite" and made of more than one elementary particle bound together.

The elementary particles of the Standard Model are:

1)Six "flavors" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top;

2)Six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino;

3)Twelve gauge bosons (force carriers): the photon of electromagnetism, the three W and Z bosons of the weak force, and the eight gluons of the strong force;

Hadrons

 Nearly all composite particles contain multiple quarks (and/or antiquarks) bound together by gluons (with a few exceptions with no quarks, such as positronium and meconium). Those containing few (≤ 5) quarks (including antiquarks) are called hadrons. Due to a property known as color confinement, quarks are never found singly but always occur in hadrons containing multiple quarks.

 The hadrons are divided by number of quarks (including antiquarks) into the baryons containing an odd number of quarks (almost always 3), of which the proton and neutron (the two nucleons) are by far the best known; and the mesons containing an even number of quarks (almost always 2, one quark and one antiquark), of which the pions and kaons are the best known.

Except for the proton and neutron, all other hadrons are unstable and decay into other particles in microseconds or less. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while the neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. These commonly bind together into an atomic nucleus, e.g. a helium-4 nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons. Most hadrons do not live long enough to bind into nucleus-like composites; those that do (other than the proton and neutron) form exotic nuclei.

Any subatomic particle, like any particle in the three-dimensional space that obeys the laws of quantum mechanics, can be either a boson (with integer spin) or a fermion (with odd half-integer spin).

In the Standard Model, all the elementary fermions have spin 1/2, and are divided into the quarks which carry color charge and therefore feel the strong interaction, and the leptons which do not. The elementary bosons comprise the gauge bosons (photon, W and Z, gluons) with spin 1, while the Higgs boson is the only elementary particle with spin zero.  

Due to the laws for spin of composite particles, the baryons (3 quarks) have spin either 1/2 or 3/2, and are therefore fermions;

The mesons (2 quarks) have integer spin of either 0 or 1, and are therefore bosons.

Subatomic Particle Decay

 Most subatomic particles are not stable outside their dimensions. All leptons, as well as baryons decay by either the strong force or weak force (except for the proton). Protons are not known to decay, although whether they are "truly" stable is unknown, as some very important Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) actually require it. The μ and τ muons, as well as their antiparticles, decay by the weak force. Neutrinos (and antineutrinos) do not decay, but a related phenomenon of neutrino oscillations is thought to exist even in vacuums. The electron and its antiparticle, the positron, are theoretically stable due to charge conservation unless a lighter particle having a magnitude of electric charge ≤ e exists (which is unlikely). Its charge is not shown yet.

All observable subatomic particles have their electric charge an integer which is a multiple of the elementary charge. The Standard Model's quarks have "non-integer" electric charges, namely, multiple of 1⁄3 e, but quarks (and other combinations with non-integer electric charge) cannot be isolated due to color confinement. For baryons, mesons, and their antiparticles the constituent quarks' charges sum up to an integer multiple of e.

The theory of Relativity

According to the theory of relativity, time dilation occurs because time is not an absolute quantity, but rather depends on the relative motion of two observers. Specifically, when two observers are in relative motion to each other, they will each experience time passing at a different rate.

This effect is caused by the fact that the speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference, meaning that the laws of physics must be consistent for all observers moving at a constant velocity.

 This leads to the phenomenon of time dilation, where time appears to "slow down" for an observer in motion relative to another observer who is at rest.

The equation that describes time dilation is given by:

Δt' = Δt / √(1 - v^2/c^2)

where Δt is the time interval measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the event being measured, Δt' is the time interval measured by an observer who is in motion relative to the event, v is the relative velocity between the two observers, and c is the speed of light.

This equation shows that as the relative velocity between two observers approaches the speed of light, time dilation becomes more significant, and the time interval measured by the moving observer becomes increasingly smaller compared to the time interval measured by the stationary observer. This effect has been observed in experiments involving high-speed particles and is a key prediction of the theory of relativity.

According to the theory of relativity, an object traveling at the speed of light would experience infinite time dilation, meaning that time appears to come to a complete stop for the object. Therefore, it is not meaningful to ask what the length of the object would be at a stationary time, because the concept of "stationary time" does not apply to an object traveling at the speed of light.

However, we can still calculate the length contraction that would occur for an object traveling at a speed very close to the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, the length of an object as measured by an observer in motion relative to the object is given by:

L' = L / √(1 - v^2/c^2)

where L is the length of the object as measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the object, L' is the length of the object as measured by an observer who is in motion relative to the object, v is the relative velocity between the two observers, and c is the speed of light.

If we assume that the object has a rest length of 1 meter and is traveling at a speed very close to the speed of light (let's say v = 0.999c), we can calculate the length of the object as measured by an observer in motion relative to the object:

L' = 1 m / √(1 - (0.999c)^2/c^2) = 22.4 cm

This means that the length of the object would appear to be contracted to 22.4 centimeters when measured by an observer in motion relative to the object.

According to the theory of relativity, a photon traveling at the speed of light experiences time dilation, which means that time appears to come to a complete stop for the photon. From the perspective of a photon, there is no time between its emission and absorption, because it experiences the entire journey at once.

 Therefore, it is not meaningful to talk about the "time" of a photon.

As for the size of a photon, it is not possible to talk about the size of a photon in the same way that we talk about the size of a macroscopic object. Photons are elementary particles and are believed to be point-like, meaning that they do not have a physical size or extent. However, photons do have a wavelength and a frequency, which are related to their energy and momentum. The wavelength and frequency of a photon are related by the equation:

λ = c / ν

where λ is the wavelength of the photon, ν is its frequency, and c is the speed of light. The energy of a photon is related to its frequency by the equation:

E = hν

where E is the energy of the photon and h is Planck's constant.

The concept of time moving at 0 seconds is not physically meaningful, so it is difficult to describe what would happen to an object in such a scenario. However, if we assume that time is moving extremely slowly, then we can use the equations of time dilation and length contraction from special relativity to describe the behavior of objects.

Assuming that an object is moving at a speed close to the speed of light, its length would contract according to the following equation:

L = L_0 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2)

where L is the contracted length, L_0 is the object's rest length (i.e., the length it would have if it were at rest), v is its velocity, and c is the speed of light.

If we assume that time is moving very slowly or has stopped, then v would be close to or equal to c, and the denominator of the equation would approach 0. This would cause the contracted length to become infinitely small or collapse to a singularity.

Time moving at speeds of 0 or as a fraction of the speed of light or c

The concept of time becoming zero or negative is quite difficult to imagine in our usual three dimensions,  as time seems always positive and cannot be less than zero. However, if we assume that time is moving extremely slowly, then we can use the equations of time dilation and length contraction from special relativity to describe the behavior of objects.

If an object is moving at the speed of light, then its length would contract to zero according to the following equation:

L = L_0 / sqrt(1 - v^2/c^2)

where L is the contracted length, L_0 is the object's rest length (i.e., the length it would have if it were at rest), v is its velocity, and c is the speed of light.

If we assume that the velocity of the object is exactly equal to c, then the denominator of the equation would be zero, which would cause the contracted length to become infinitely small or collapse to a singularity. 

A singularity isn’t a place in space that we know much about, a strange and perhaps a place of perfect reflection or perfect darkness. A place where different physics seems to apply and strange things seem to happen, a place where photons form chains that we can touch. Or patterns of photons that nothing we know of can break.

 Time flows in the orders of fractions of the speed of light and the greater the fraction of the speed of light ,the slower the speed at which energy flows, creating physical particles with different masses in proportion to the fractions of the speed of light .The speed of light is also in the orders of fractions of the speeds of light in our three usual dimensions .

How different fractions of the speed of light in different dimensions or “1/c” determines the energy ,masses, time and behavior of different particles in different dimensions of time.

Below are mathematical calculations involving the flow of energy at speeds that are fractions of speeds of light and the different particles they form and perhaps we can find some similarities to see how many exact dimensions actually exist within the atom.

Formation of matter by varying the speeds of light below the value of C.

The Nucleus

The formation of a nucleus involves the binding of protons and neutrons through the strong nuclear force. The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of it's constituent particles, and this mass deficit is known as the mass defect. 

The mass defect is related to the binding energy of the nucleus through Einstein's famous equation, E = mc^2.

To calculate the speed of light required to form a nucleus of a particular mass in one second, we would need to know the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the binding energy per nucleon. The binding energy per nucleon varies for different nuclei, so the required speed of light would also vary.

As an example, let's consider the formation of a helium-4 nucleus, which contains two protons and two neutrons. The mass of a helium-4 nucleus is about 4.0026 atomic mass units (amu), while the combined mass of two protons and two neutrons is about 4.0319 amu. The mass defect for helium-4 is therefore 0.0293 amu. Using E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required to create this mass, which is:

E = (0.0293 amu) * (1.66 x 10^-27 kg/amu) * (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 2.61 x 10^-11 joules

To form this nucleus in one second, the speed of light would need to be slowed down such that:

2.61 x 10^-11 joules = (3.00 x 10^8 m/s)^2 * m m = 9.15 x 10^-28 kg

This corresponds to a speed of:

v = m / t = 9.15 x 10^-28 kg / 1 s = 9.15 x 10^-28 m/s

Therefore, to form a helium-4 nucleus in one second, the speed of light would need to be slowed down to 9.15 x 10^-28 m/s.

The proton

To form a proton with a mass of approximately 1.6726219 × 10^-27 kilograms in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to:

c = √[(E/m)^2 - 1]

where E is the energy required to create the mass of the proton and m is the rest mass of the proton.

Using the equation E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required:

E = (1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg) x (299792458 m/s)^2

E = 1.50327655 x 10^-10 joules

Plugging this into the first equation, we get:

c = √[(1.50327655 x 10^-10 J)/(1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg)]^2 – 1

c = 299792458.00000005 m/s

So, the speed of light would only need to slow down by an incredibly small amount of 0.000000016 meters per second to create a proton in one second.

The Neutron

To form a neutron with a mass of approximately 1.6749275 × 10^-27 kilograms in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to:

c = √[(E/m)^2 - 1]

where E is the energy required to create the mass of the neutron and m is the rest mass of the neutron.

Using the equation E = mc^2, we can calculate the energy required:

E = (1.6749275 × 10^-27 kg) x (299792458 m/s)^2

E = 1.50534995 x 10^-10 joules

Plugging this into the first equation, we get:

c = √[(1.50534995 x 10^-10 J)/(1.6749275 × 10^-27 kg)]^2 - 1

c = 299792458.00000005 m/s

So, similar to the case of forming a proton, the speed of light would only need to slow down by an incredibly small amount of 0.000000016 meters per second to create a neutron in one second.

An Electron

As we discussed earlier, the formation of a mass requires a conversion of energy to mass, as described by the equation E=mc^2. So to form a mass of an electron in one second, we would need to know how much mass we want to form and then calculate the amount of energy required.

The mass of an electron is approximately 9.11 x 10^-31 kilograms. Using the equation E=mc^2, we can calculate the amount of energy required to form this mass:

E = (9.11 x 10^-31 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 E = 8.19 x 10^-14 joules

Now,  we need to determine how slow the speed of light would have to move to form this amount of energy in one second. We can use the equation:

E = Pt

where P is the power and t is the time. Solving for P, we get:

P = E / t P = (8.19 x 10^-14 J) / (1 s) P = 8.19 x 10^-14 watts

Next, we can use the equation for the power of a photon, which is given by:

P = hf / t

where h is Planck's constant, f is the frequency of the photon, and t is the time. Solving for f, we get:

f = P / (h x t) f = (8.19 x 10^-14 W) / (6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 1 s) f = 1.23 x 10^19 Hz

Finally, we can use the equation for the energy of a photon, which is given by:

E = hf

where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency of the photon. Solving for c, we get:

c = E / hf c = (8.19 x 10^-14 J) / (6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 1.23 x 10^19 Hz) c = 5.27 x 10^6 m/s

So to form a mass of an electron in one second, the speed of light would have to slow down to approximately 5.27 million meters per second.

The Muon,Tau ,Neutrino

Muon: To form a mass of one muon (approximately 1.88 x 10^-28 kg) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999964 c (where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, approximately 299,792,458 meters per second).

Tau: To form a mass of one tau (approximately 3.17 x 10^-27 kg) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999852 c.

Neutrino (electron, muon, or tau): Neutrinos have very small masses, ranging from about 0.00001 to 0.00000001 times the mass of an electron. To form a mass of one neutrino (assuming an average mass of 0.00000001 times the mass of an electron) in one second, the speed of light would need to slow down to about 0.999999999999999996 c (approximately 299,792,457.999999963 meters per second). It's worth noting that neutrinos are typically not thought to be formed by slowing down the speed of light, but rather through other processes such as nuclear reactions.

The Gluon ,Z-boson,W-boson

The formation of a massive particle from energy depends on the amount of energy involved and the rest mass of the resulting particle. The relationship between energy and mass is given by the famous equation E=mc^2, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

To determine how slow the speed of light should move to form a particular particle in one second, we need to rearrange the equation to solve for c.

c = sqrt(E/m)

where E is the energy required to create the particle, and m is the rest mass of the particle.

For the gluon, z boson, and W boson, they are all elementary particles and have no rest mass. Therefore, their creation requires only the energy required to create them, which can be obtained from their mass-energy equivalence through the equation E=mc^2.

For example, the rest mass of the Z boson is about 91 GeV/c^2, so the energy required to create one Z boson is about:

E = (91 GeV/c^2) * c^2 = 8.187 x 10^-11 J

To form a Z boson in one second, we can plug in the values of E and m into the equation above and solve for c:

c = sqrt(E/m) = sqrt(8.187 x 10^-11 J / 91 GeV/c^2) = 0.9983c

So the speed of light would have to slow down to about 99.83% of its normal value to create a Z boson in one second.

For other particles, the values of E and m will be different, and therefore the required value of c will be different as well.

Formation of matter by variation of time ,at constant universal speeds of light in different dimensions.

The Electron

The speed of light is a fundamental constant of nature, and it does not change. Its value is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second (m/s). The equation E=mc² tells us that the mass of an object is proportional to its energy, and that the conversion factor between energy and mass is the speed of light squared.

If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of an electron, we can use the rest mass of an electron, which is approximately 9.1094 x 10^-31 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (9.1094 x 10^-31 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.1871 x 10^-14 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of an electron. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (8.1871 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 8.1871 x 10^-14 s

or approximately 0.82 picoseconds to create the mass of an electron. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The Muon

If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of a muon, we can use the rest mass of a muon, which is approximately 1.8835 x 10^-28 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (1.8835 x 10^-28 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.6925 x 10^-11 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of a muon. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.6925 x 10^-11 J) / (1 W) = 1.6925 x 10^-11 s

or approximately 16.9 nanoseconds to create the mass of a muon. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The Tau

If we want to know how much energy is required to create the mass of a tau, we can use the rest mass of a tau, which is approximately 3.1675 x 10^-27 kilograms (kg). Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (3.1675 x 10^-27 kg) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 2.8467 x 10^-10 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the mass of a tau. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (2.8467 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 2.8467 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 284.67 picoseconds to create the mass of a tau. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The Neutrino

The rest mass of a neutrino is very small, and its value is not precisely known. However, it is known to be less than 2 eV/c², where eV is electron volts, a unit of energy, and c is the speed of light. Using the maximum value of the rest mass of a neutrino, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 3.58 x 10^-10 joules (J)

This is the amount of energy required to create the maximum rest mass of a neutrino. If we want to know how much time it would take to create this mass with a given amount of energy, we would need to know the power of the energy source creating the mass. If we assume that the energy source has a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (3.58 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 3.58 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 358 picoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a neutrino. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it does not change and is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Muon Neutrino

Similar to the calculation for the neutrino, we can use the maximum rest mass of a muon neutrino, which is approximately 0.2 eV/c². Using the equation E=mc², we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (0.2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.79 x 10^-11 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.79 x 10^-11 J) / (1 W) = 1.79 x 10^-11 s

or approximately 17.9 picoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a muon neutrino. Again, note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The tau Neutrino

The maximum rest mass of a tau neutrino is not precisely known, but it is estimated to be less than 18.2 eV/c². Using this maximum value, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create this mass:

E = (18.2 eV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.63 x 10^-8 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.63 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 1.63 x 10^-8 s

or approximately 16.3 nanoseconds to create the maximum rest mass of a tau neutrino. As with the previous calculations, note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The down quark

The mass of a down quark is approximately 4.7 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a down quark:

E = (4.7 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 4.22 x 10^-10 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (4.22 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 4.22 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 422 picoseconds to create a down quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The strange quark

The mass of a strange quark is approximately 95 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a strange quark:

E = (95 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.52 x 10^-9 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (8.52 x 10^-9 J) / (1 W) = 8.52 x 10^-9 s

or approximately 8.52 nanoseconds to create a strange quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Bottom quark

The mass of a bottom quark is approximately 4.18 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a bottom quark:

E = (4.18 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 3.76 x 10^-8 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (3.76 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 3.76 x 10^-8 s

or approximately 37.6 nanoseconds to create a bottom quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The up quark 

The mass of an up quark is approximately 2.2 MeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create an up quark:

E = (2.2 MeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.98 x 10^-10 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.98 x 10^-10 J) / (1 W) = 1.98 x 10^-10 s

or approximately 0.198 nanoseconds to create an up quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The charm quark

The mass of a charm quark is approximately 1.28 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a charm quark:

E = (1.28 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.15 x 10^-8 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.15 x 10^-8 J) / (1 W) = 1.15 x 10^-8 s

or approximately 11.5 nanoseconds to create a charm quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Top quark

The mass of a top quark is approximately 173 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a top quark:

E = (173 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 1.55 x 10^-6 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.55 x 10^-6 J) / (1 W) = 1.55 x 10^-6 s

or approximately 1.55 microseconds to create a top quark. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  

The gluon

Gluons are massless particles, which means that they do not have a rest mass. Therefore, it is not possible to create a mass of a gluon by slowing down the speed of light or by any other means.

The mass-energy equivalence principle, expressed by the famous equation E=mc², applies only to particles that have a rest mass. Since gluons do not have a rest mass, they cannot be created from energy alone. Instead, gluons are produced as a result of the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together inside protons and neutrons.

  The Z boson

The mass of a Z boson is approximately 91 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a Z boson:

E = (91 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 8.16 x 10^-14 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (8.16 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 8.16 x 10^-14 s

or approximately 0.816 femtoseconds to create a Z boson. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The W- Boson

The mass of a W boson is approximately 80.4 GeV/c². Using this mass, we can calculate the amount of energy required to create a W boson:

E = (80.4 GeV/c²) x (299,792,458 m/s)^2 = 7.24 x 10^-14 J

If we assume that we have an energy source with a constant power output of P watts (W), we can use the equation:

E = P x t

where t is the time in seconds (s) required to create the mass. Solving for t, we get:

t = E / P

For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (7.24 x 10^-14 J) / (1 W) = 7.24 x 10^-14 s

or approximately 0.724 femtoseconds to create a W boson. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as it is already taken into account in the equation E=mc².

  The Photon

Photons are massless particles, so they cannot be created by slowing down the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, photons always travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is approximately 299,792,458 meters per second.

However, photons can be converted into particles with mass, such as an electron-positron pair, through various processes such as pair production. In this process, a high-energy photon can interact with the electric field of a nucleus or an atomic electron and create a pair of particles with mass. The minimum energy required for this process is twice the rest mass energy of an electron, which is approximately 1.02 MeV (mega-electron volts).

To calculate the time required to create an electron-positron pair from a photon, we can use the equation:

t = E / P

Where E is the energy required to create the pair (i.e., 2 x 0.511 MeV = 1.022 MeV) and P is the power of the energy source. For example, if we had an energy source with a power output of 1 watt (1 J/s), it would take:

t = (1.022 MeV) / (1 J/s) = 1.62 x 10^-15 s

or approximately 1.62 femtoseconds. Note that the speed of light is not a factor in this calculation, as the energy of the photon is already taken into account.

In summary we have discussed what time is, in the two part series. What happens when we exceed the speed of light and as a result we begin travelling backward in time and we gave an observed example of all anti-particles as travelling backwards in time due to the fact that they are moving faster than the speed of light. 

We have also shown that time is a fundamental part of the universe due to the fact that time is equivalent to the rate of flow of information and the basic form of information is energy, that since energy can neither be created nor destroyed ,as a result time can’t be created or destroyed. 

The fact that time is equivalent to the rate of flow of information is also clearly seen in the importance the speed of light plays in our universe and since our minds are only able to get information at the speed of light, that places limitations on our understanding of quantum mechanics. Which contains dimensions where the speed of light flows at rates which are fractions of speed of light and time has extremely small values. 

We have proved that photons aren’t formed by annihilation but by combination of two particles, an electron and a positron. 

We have examined if we slowed the speed of light, what happens to mass of different particles. Light travels slower in different dimensions, it has even been achieved by scientists in our three dimensions. It's much difficult to create matter that way .

However when we examined the formation and stability of matter by slowing down time, we observed it's more likely that all particles are classified into groups of dimensions where time is the same and perhaps affects the rate of flow of energy and thus keeps them stable in those dimensions .

This implies that the rate of flow of time differs in different dimensions ,with the slowest rate known as Planck’s time 5.391247x10^-44 seconds .Particles that are stable in their dimensions where time has a certain value in relation to the speed of light become unstable when they move to other dimensions.

The rest I will leave to the reader to think about and perhaps add more or correct any errors.

scientists speed up and slow down time.